Class N: 11 Date: 28/10/2013 Fac: Environmental - UPS

Teacher: Alejandro Parra G Geology Level: 5th

Topic: Geology and
Landscape

According the proposal to get the objective of the class, students most do an exposition
about the documentation attached, read carefully, extract most important concepts and
make only tabs mnemonic devices. The exposition should be alone by student, the full time
will be agreed by everyone (about 5min), the total score is about 20points.
GEOLOGY AND LANDSCAPE
Most people consider the landscape to be unchanging, but Earth is a dynamic body,
and its surface is continually altering-slowly on the human time scale, but relatively rapidly
when compared to the great age of Earth (about 4,500 billion years). There are two
principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, which
create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear
away exposed landforms.
Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully
resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in
geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was
formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years
old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher
mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North
America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the
modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-
building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern
Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal
plateau.
The Earth's crust is thought to be divided into huge, movable segments, called plates,
which float on a soft plastic layer of rock. Some mountains were formed as a result of these
plates crashing into each other and forcing up the rock at the plate margins. In this process,
sedimentary rocks that originally formed on the seabed may be folded upwards to altitudes
of more than 26,000 feet. Other mountains may be raised by earthquakes, which fracture
the Earth's crust and can displace enough rock to produce block mountains. A third type of
mountain may be formed as a result of volcanic activity which occurs in regions of active
fold mountain belts, such as in the Cascade Range of western North America. The Cascades
are made up of lavas and volcanic materials. Many of the peaks are extinct volcanoes.
Whatever the reason for mountain formation, as soon as land rises above sea level it is
subjected to destructive forces. The exposed rocks are attacked by the various weather
processes and gradually broken down into fragments, which are then carried away and later
deposited as sediments. Thus, any landscape represents only a temporary stage in the
continuous battle between the forces of uplift and those of erosion.
The weather, in its many forms, is the main agent of erosion. Rain washes away loose
soil and penetrates cracks in the rocks. Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the rainwater,
forming a weak acid (carbonic acid) that may chemically attack the rocks. The rain seeps
underground and the water may reappear later as springs. These springs are the sources of
streams and rivers, which cut through the rocks and carry away debris from the mountains
to the lowlands.
Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in
permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying
with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. In dry areas the wind is the principal agent
of erosion. It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby
wearing them into yet more sand. Even living things contribute to the formation of
landscapes. Tree roots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their
splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil
fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind.

Geological landscapes of the Death Valley region
B
Marli Bryant Miller
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1272, United States
Keywords: Death Valley; landforms; history; stratigraphy; photographs
1. Introduction
Death Valleys location and climate make it one
of the most dramatic geological landscapes on Earth.
The region lies near the western edge of cratonic
North America, and so it contains a record of plate
boundary effects that date back to the Proterozoic.
These effects include rifting and the development of
the passive margin during the Late Proterozoic,
crustal shortening and Sierra Nevada magmatism
largely during the Mesozoic, and crustal extension
and magmatism during the Late Cenozoic. Because
crustal extension continues today, the region also
showcases spectacular landforms that relate to active
mountain-building.
When combined with this geology, Death Valleys
harsh climate makes it unique. As the hottest and
driest area in North America, both its geological
record and landforms are unusually visible to geolo-
gists and non-geologists alike. It is for this reason that
the national park overflows with geology field trips
during the spring months, and many visitors gain a
deeper understanding of Earth processes.
The authors of this volume represent several hun-
dred years of collective experience working on the
geology of the Death Valley region. Lauren Wright
and Bennie Troxel alone have logged more than one
hundred years. It is easy to see why so many geolo-
gists keep coming back: traveling through this land-
scape is like walking through a beautifully illustrated
geology textbook, only better. The following photo-
graphs attempt to portray some pages of that textbook,
but like all photographs, they fall well short of an
actual visit.
Each photograph is keyed to a number on the
accompanying geologic map (Miller and Wright,
2004) (Fig. 1). An arrow adjacent to a number indi-
cates the direction of view. Those photographs that
portray crustal extension or modern landforms appear
in the first section. Those that illustrate the older
geologic history appear in the second section.
0012-8252/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.010
B
All illustrations (figures and photographs) n Marli Bryant
Miller.
E-mail address: millerm@uoregon.edu.
Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx
www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev
EARTH-01387; No of Pages 14
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Fig. 1. Geologic map of Death Valley area, compiled by Miller and Wright (2004). Numbers and arrows depict corresponding photo location
and direction of view. Abbreviations for mountain ranges are as follows: B: Black Mountains; C: Cottonwood Mountains; F: Funeral
Mountains; G: Grapevine Mountains; L: Last Chance Range; N: Nopah Range; O: Owlshead Mountains; P: Panamint Mountains; R: Resting
Spring Range. Abbreviations on location map of California are as follows: CA: California; DV: Death Valley National Park; LA: Los Angeles;
NV: Nevada; SF: San Francisco; SN: Sierra Nevada Mountains.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 2
2. Modern landforms and crustal extension
Photo 1. View northward along west side of Black Mountains. The Black Mountains consist predominantly of late
Tertiary plutonic, volcanic, and sedimentary rock and a basement of Late Proterozoic metamorphic rock. They rise
above the floor of Death Valley along the Black Mountains fault zone. The alluvial fans that spill out of each
canyon tend to be relatively small because the valley floor tilts gently eastward. The Grapevine Mountains, in the
far background, are approximately 80 km away.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 3
Photo 2.
Photo 3.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 4
Photo 2. Bajada at Hanaupah Canyon (see preceding page). In contrast to the small, well-shaped fans on the east
side of Death Valley, those on the west side coalesce into a gigantic bajada at the mountain front. Jayko (2005this
volume) characterizes rates of erosion for the Panamint Mountains. A fault scarp cuts diagonally across the bajada in
the bottom half of the photo. Vegetation marks locations of springs at the lowest reaches of the bajada.
Photo 3. Black Mountains fault zone (see preceding page). The Black Mountains fault zone displays all the
characteristics of active faults, including an extremely abrupt and linear range front, faceted spurs, and wineglass
canyons.
Photo 4. Salt pan at Badwater, view southward. Much of the valley floor of Death Valley is covered by salt
that is broken into large polygons. This view to the south also shows the abrupt western edge of the Black
Mountains. Messina et al. (2005this volume) characterize polygon morphology in northern Panamint and
Eureka valleys.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 5
Photo 5. Copper Canyon turtleback. There are three turtlebacks in the Black Mountains, named because their
broadly convex-upwards geometries resemble turtle shells (Curry, 1938). Each turtleback exposes a core of
metamorphosed sedimentary and basement rock separated from an upper plate of sedimentary or volcanic rock
by a fault zone. This photograph shows green-colored metamorphic rock faulted against red- and tan-colored
sedimentary rock just south of Copper Canyon. Miller and Pavlis (2005this volume) describe the structural
evolution of the three turtlebacks and their implications for crustal extension in the region. Cemen et al. (2005
this volume) describe similar features in Turkey.
Photo 6. Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes (see next page). The Death Valley region hosts numerous sand dune fields,
each of which exists in a setting that is partially protected from the wind. These dunes on Mesquite Flat lie at the
northern foot of Tucki Mountain, off to the side from the main part of Death Valley. They contain both crescentic
and star dunes.
Photo 7. Kit Fox Hills and Northern Death Valley fault zone (see next page). The Kit Fox Hills consist of folded
and faulted Late Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. The hills end abruptly at the northern Death Valley fault zone,
shown here cutting diagonally across the photo. This view to the northwest also shows much of northern Death
Valley, with the Cottonwood Mountains on the left and the Grapevine Mountains on right.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 6
Photo 6.
Photo 7.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 7
Photo 8.
Photo 9.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 8
Photo 8. Little Hebe Craters (see preceding page). This cluster of small phreatic explosion craters exists on the
shoulder of the much larger Ubehebe Crater in northern Death Valley. A total of 13 explosions produced the entire
field (Crowe and Fisher, 1973).
Photo 9. Sliding rock at Racetrack Playa (see preceding page). At an elevation of 4000 ft and a long stretch
of valley to funnel the wind, Racetrack Playa hosts rocks that occasionally slide across the playa surface. No
one has actually seen them move, so the actual cause has been long debated. The rock in this photo is
approximately 30 cm across.
3 . Geologic history
Photo 10. Diabase sill and basement unconformity, view southward. The Crystal Spring Formation, which is the
lower part of the Pahrump Group, rests depositionally on basement rocks. It is intruded by green-colored diabase
sills that yielded an age of 1.08 Ga (Heaman and Grotzinger, 1992). Metamorphic reactions between the diabase
and dolomite of the Crystal Spring Formation produced large deposits of talc, which have been mined throughout
the Death Valley region. To the south, this photograph shows the western edge of the southern Black Mountains,
and in the distant background, the Avawatz Mountains.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 9
Photo 11. Cliffs of Paleozoic rock, Cottonwood Mountains. With the exception of the Black Mountains, every
range in the Death Valley region is underlain by Late Proterozoic through Paleozoic marine sedimentary rocks.
These rocks attain thicknesses of 10 km and were deposited on a long-lived passive margin, similar in many ways
to the present-day eastern seaboard of North America.
Photo 12. Hunter Mountain Batholith and Paleozoic rock at Racetrack Playa (see next page). The Hunter
Mountain Batholith, part of which is shown here as the dark-colored rock, is a Middle Jurassic pluton that reflects
activity during early stages of the Sierran magmatic arc. Here it intrudes folded and thrust faulted Paleozoic rock
(tan) to establish a pre-Middle Jurassic age for those structures. Stevens and Stone (2005this volume) review
these compressional structures. Saline Valley lies in the background; the Sierra Nevada lies in the far background,
about 70 km away.
Photo 13. Folded rock in Grapevine Mountains (see next page). The Grapevine Mountains, mapped in detail by
Reynolds (1969) and Niemi (2002), contain thick sequences of Paleozoic rock that was deformed into large-scale
folds and faults during crustal shortening. Overlying these rocks are less deformed Tertiary sedimentary and
volcanic rock.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 10
Photo 12.
Photo 13.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 11
Photo 14. Smith Mountain, Black Mountains. Smith Mountain, on the right side of this photograph, is underlain by
the Smith Mountain pluton, one of several mid-Miocene plutons that intrude the Black Mountains. It consists
largely of granite and locally contains distinctive rapakivi textures, described in detail by Calzia and Ramo
(2005this volume). Wingate Wash, a site of transtensional deformation described by Luckow et al. (2005this
volume) lies in the background.
Photo 15. Furnace Creek Formation at Zabriskie Point (see next page). The Furnace Creek Formation consists
primarily of alluvial fan and playa deposits, shown here in the foreground and middle ground respectively. It was
deposited from about 64 Ma, in the Furnace Creek Basin, an extensional basin that formed along the Furnace
Creek fault zone prior to opening of modern Death Valley.
Photo 16. Angular unconformity at Ryan Mesa (see next page). This photograph shows undeformed 4 Ma basalt
overlying Artist Drive Formation (left) faulted against tilted Furnace Creek Formation (right). This unconfor-
mity marks the end of active extension in the Furnace Creek Basin and the approximate onset of crustal
extension in modern Death Valley. Knott et al. (2005this volume) reconstruct the stratigraphy during this
transition period.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 12
Photo 15.
Photo 16.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 13
References
Calzia, J.P., Ramo , O.T., 2005this volume. Miocene rapaviki granites in the southern Death Valley region, California, USA. Earth-Science
Reviews 73. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.006.
Cemen, I., Tekeli, O., Seyitoglu, G., Isik, V., 2005this volume. Are turtleback fault surfaces common structural elements of highly extended
terrains? Earth-Science Reviews 73. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.001.
Crowe, B.M., Fisher, R.V., 1973. Sedimentary structures in base-surge deposits with special reference to cross bedding, Ubehebe Crater, Death
Valley, California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 84, 663682.
Curry, H.D., 1938. bTurtlebackQ fault surfaces in Death Valley, California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 49, 1875.
Heaman, L.M., Grotzinger, J., 1992. 1.08 Ga diabase sills in the Pahrump Group, California: implications for development of the Cordilleran
Miogeocline. Geology 20, 637640.
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California and Nevada. PhD thesis, Pasadena, California Institute of Technology, 344 pp.
Reynolds, M.W., 1969. Stratigraphy and structural geology of the Titus and Titanothere Canyons area, Death Valley, California. PhD thesis,
Berkeley, University of California, Berkeley, 310 pp.
Stevens, C.H., Stone, P., 2005this volume. Structure and regional significance of the Late Permian(?) Sierra NevadaDeath Valley thrust
system, East-Central California. Earth-Science Reviews 63. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.04.005.
M.B. Miller / Earth-Science Reviews xx (2005) xxxxxx 14