Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
\
|
+
+
= =
4 3
4
2 1
2
This can also be written as
When R
2
R
3
= R
1
R
4
, the circuit output is zero, V
ab
=0. The bridge is said to be balanced when V
ab
=
0 volts. This occurs when R
1
/R
2
= R
3
/R
4
. In a typical sensing device, a variable resistor R
4
, is used.
The other three resistors are fixed. We will now refer to R
4
as R
S
. The Wheatstone Bridge is
initially balanced with all of the Rs having the same resistance value by design, including R
S
(the
resistance of the sensing element when there is nothing to sense). The value of R
S
changes when the
external environment changes thus affecting V
ab
as
in
S
S
ab
V
R R
R
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
3 2 1
2
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 10 of 14
Int_WheatB_PK01_PG_061411 Wheatstone Bridge PK
Assuming the input voltage, V
in
= 10V and the transducer resistance R
S
is initially 100 Ohms (O),
and R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= 100 O , as well, then V
ab
can be plotted as a function of R
S
:
Notice that when R
S
= 100 O, V
ab
=0 volts and the bridge is balanced. Changes in the environment
on the transducer affects its resistance, R
s
, creating an unbalanced bridge which results in a voltage
related to the resistance change. Based on the graph, if the resistance of R
S
increases, V
ab
decreases.
A similar plot can be made plotting V
ab
versus the environmental variable associated with the
change in resistance.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 11 of 14
Int_WheatB_PK01_PG_061411 Wheatstone Bridge PK
Two Variable Resistors
Looking carefully at the equations and the circuit diagrams, one can design a more sensitive circuit
where R
1
and R
4
are both variable resistors. Such a circuit is shown below:
If the R
1
and R
4
resistors are both variable and react in the same manner to an external
environmental change, then the effect on the output voltage, V
ab
is amplified!
Reconsider the case where all resistances are initially at 100 each and V
in
is 10 V. How would V
ab
be affected if both R
1
and R
4
both increased to 110 ohms? Graphing V
ab
as a function of the
variable resistances of R
1
and R
4
(in this case changing by the same amount while the other two, R
2
and R
3
remain constant at 100) is shown in the following graph. Note: the variable resistors in the
case of a strain gauge pressure sensor will only increase from the nominal value (why would this
be?). In the graph below, the blue line represents the case when there is only one variable resistor.
The red line represents the transducer response when both R
1
and R
4
are variable.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 12 of 14
Int_WheatB_PK01_PG_061411 Wheatstone Bridge PK
When the Wheatstone bridge is used in a pressure sensor, the resistors are oriented such that R
1
and
R
4
are variable under the stress of a flexible membrane on which they are made.
Wheatstone Bridge layout used in a Pressure Sensor
Actual pressure sensor photo showing the Wheatstone bridge circuit (gold) pattern on top of the
silicon nitride membrane. This pattern is slightly different than the schematic.
[Image of a pressure sensor built at the Manufacturing Technology Training Center (MTTC) at the University of New
Mexico (UNM)]
Membrane
(Diaphragm)
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 13 of 14
Int_WheatB_PK01_PG_061411 Wheatstone Bridge PK
Calibration
To calibrate a Wheatstone bridge as a pressure transducer, a series of known pressure differences is
applied to the sensing element(s). The output voltage (V
ab
) is measured using a voltmeter, and V
ab
versus pressure is plotted. Such a plot is referred to as a calibration curve. When an unknown
pressure is subsequently applied and the output voltage read, the calibration curve of V
ab
vs.
Pressure can be used to determine the actual pressure.
The graph below is an example of a calibration curve based on an actual MEMS pressure sensor
utilizing a Wheatstone bridge
5
. This graphic shows how to read the curve, for example, if an output
voltage of .22 V is read, the corresponding pressure is approximately 82psi.
Summary
A Wheatstone bridge is a simple circuit used to measure transducer responses by measuring changes
in voltage. Basic circuit analysis is used to determine the resistance, voltage and current when the
bridge is balanced. Any change in transducer resistance causes the bridge output voltage to change
corresponding to the change in pressure. A voltmeter measures the output of the Wheatstone bridge
and the corresponding pressure is read off of the calibration curve. In a MEMS where the
Wheatstone bridge is part of the sensing circuit, its output can be amplified and processed to send
information or to initiate a mechanical or electrical response.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 14 of 14
Int_WheatB_PK01_PG_061411 Wheatstone Bridge PK
References
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_bridge
2
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/641626/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
3
Dr. Chuck Hawkins, University of New Mexico , Wheatstone Bridge v3.doc
4
Wheatstone Bridge www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/8341/bridge.htm
5
Hsun-Heng Tsai*, Chi-Chang Hsieh, Cheng-Wen Fan, Young-Chang Chen and Wei-Te Wu
Design and Characterization of Temperature-Robust Piezoresistive Micro-Pressure Sensor with Double Wheatstone
Bridge Bridge Structure, DTIP of MEMS & MOEMS, 1-3 April, Rome, Italy, 2009.
Glossary of Key Terms
Calibration Curve A plot of data acquired in the calibration of instrument or device. The curve is
used to show how an instrument meets a standard or specification.
Electric circuit A path or group of interconnected paths capable of carrying electric current.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law The algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed loop of electric circuit must
equal zero.
Ohms Law - The law stating that the direct current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference between its ends. It is usually formulated as V = IR, where V is the potential
difference, or voltage, I is the current, and R is the resistance of the conductor.
Resistance A components opposition to current passing through it,resulting in a change of
electrical energy into heat or another form of energy.
Resistivity The measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of current.
Resistor An electronic device designed with a specific amount of resistance; used to limit current
flow or to provide a voltage drop.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) The ratio of the amplitude of a desired signal at any point to the
amplitude of noise signals at that same point. (i.e., The ratio of a desired signal to the level of
background noise.) A ratio less than 1:1 indicates that the background noise is greater than the
desired (or reference) noise.
Transducer A device that converts one form of energy to another form of energy. (e.g., A motor
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.)
Voltage A representation of the electric potential energy per unit charge. A measurement of the
energy contained within an electric field, or an electric circuit, at a given point.
Wheatstone Bridge A four armed bridge circuit, each arm having a resistor (fixed or variable). It
is used to measure an unknown resistance by balancing two arms of the bridge, one of which
contains the unknown resistance.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological Education
(ATE) Program.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
University of New Mexico
MEMS Introduction Topic
Pressure Sensor Model Activity
Shareable Content Object (SCO)
This SCO is part of the Learning Module
Wheatstone Bridge Overview
Target audiences: High School, Community College.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological Education
(ATE) Program through Grants #0830384 and 0902411.
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors
and creators, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Copyright 2009 - 2011 by the Southwest Center for Microsystems Education
and
The Regents of the University of New Mexico
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
800 Bradbury Drive SE, Ste. 235
Albuquerque, NM 87106-4346
Phone: 505-272-7150
Website: www.scme-nm.org email contact: mpleil@unm.edu
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 2 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
Pressure Sensor Model Activity
Wheatstone Bridge Overview Learning Module
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
In this activity you will use basic materials to build
a macro pressure sensor with a Wheatstone bridge
sensing circuit (circuit right) on a flexible
diaphragm. The results will simulate a MEMS
pressure sensor (see Introduction). To test your
sensor, you will apply variable pressures to the
diaphragm while monitoring the resistance change
and resulting voltage output of the bridge.
The unit Wheatstone Bridge Overview, explains the operation of a Wheatstone bridge. If you
havent already reviewed this unit, you should review it before you test your pressure sensor
model. Complete this activity through Making a conductive bridge pattern. As your pattern
dries, review the Wheatstone Bridge Overview. This will help you to better understand the
workings of this device and the results of your testing.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow at least two hours to complete this activity.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 3 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
MEMS Pressure Sensor Applications
MEMS pressure sensors are designed to measure absolute or differential pressures. They
convert physical quantities such as air flow and liquid levels into pressure values that are
measured by an electronic system. MEMS pressure sensors can be used in conjunction with
other sensors such as temperature sensors and accelerometers for multisensing applications or
other components.
In the automotive industry, MEMS pressure sensors monitor the absolute air pressure within the
intake manifold of the engine. MEMS are also being designed to sense tire pressure, fuel
pressure, and air flow.
In the biomedical field, current and developing applications for MEMS
pressure sensors include blood pressure sensors (see photo right), single
and multipoint catheters, intracranial pressure sensors, cerebrospinal fluid
pressure sensors, intraocular pressure (IOP) monitors, and other implanted
coronary pressure measurements. The photo shows three blood pressure
sensors on the head of a pin. These sensors were developed by Lucas
NovaSensor to measure blood pressure and provide an electrical output
representative of the pressure. RF elements are incorporated into the
MEMS device allowing the sensor to transmit its measurements to an
external receiver.
MEMS pressure sensors are also incorporated
into endoscopes for measuring pressure in the
stomach and other organs, infusion pumps for monitoring blockage, and noninvasive blood
pressure monitors. Applications of MEMS pressure sensors within the biomedical field and
other industries are numerous.
A MEMS Pressure Sensor
Many MEMS pressure sensors use a Wheatstone
bridge configuration as the sensing circuit. In MEMS
the Wheatstone bridge circuit is mounted on a
membrane or diaphragm. The resistors in the
Wheatstone bridge are made of a piezoresistive
material, a material which changes its resistance when
mechanical stress is applied.
MEMS Blood Pressure Sensors on the head
of a pin. [Photo courtesy of Lucas
NovaSensor, Fremont, CA]
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 4 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
In the example below, a conductive material such as gold is used for the bridge circuit. The
pressure sensor diaphragm is a thin layer of material which is resistant to chemical change such
as, in this case, silicon nitride (see image below). One side of the diaphragm is sealed to provide
a reference pressure. The other side is open to the environment and subject to air pressure
variation. As the diaphragm moves due to pressure changes, the membrane expands and
stretches. The bridge resistors mounted on the membrane also expand and stretch. This
expansion of the bridge translates to a change of resistance in the conductive material of the
bridge. As the conductive material stretches, its resistance increases.
All materials have electrical resistance. The resistance to electrical current flow of an object
(resistor) is related to a material property called resistivity (), and its geometry - length, width,
and thickness. It is the combination of the geometry (shape) and material property (resistivity)
which determines the overall electrical characteristic (resistance). To calculate the resistance (R)
of a material, one can use the following formula:
=
where L, and A are the length and cross-sectional area of the resistor, respectively. In the case
of a rectangular cross section, the area can be written as
=
where t and w are the thickness and width of the structure, respectively.
In the Wheatstone bridge application presented in this activity, the resistivity, , is a physical
property of the material. Resistivity remains constant under constant temperature and stress
(e.g., pressure). It should be pointed out that the resistivity of a material, , is inversely
proportional to its conductivity, :
=
1
As the conductive (resistive) material stretches, the length increases while the area decreases.
This increase in length and decrease in area results in an increase in overall resistance.
Pressure Sensor illustrating the
Wheatstone bridge and the Silicon
Nitride Membrane (Diaphragm)
[Image of a pressure sensor built at the
Manufacturing Technology Training
Center (MTTC) at the University of New
Mexico (UNM)]
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 5 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
You may ask, I understand why the resistor gets longer when the membrane it is adhered to
stretches, but why does the cross sectional area decrease? If you consider that the overall mass
of the resistor (the total amount of the material) does not change due to the conservation of mass
principal, and that the density of the material doesnt change either, you can therefore assume
that the total volume of the resistor has to stay constant. Since volume, V, can be written as a
product of length (L) and area (A),
=
then as L gets longer, A must get smaller in order for the volume to remain constant.
NOTE: We have assumed the density of the material does not change; however, it could, if the
temperature of the material changes. Therefore it is critical for the bridge circuit design to
automatically compensate for temperature fluctuations (which could occur in a wide variety of
applications).
To re-cap, one can now see from the resistance equation, =
10. Draw the equivalent circuit with the resistance meter hookup in the space below.
Now let's apply some voltage to your circuit.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 15 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
Testing your Pressure Sensor (Measuring Voltage)
11. Using the other two leads with alligator clips, attached a voltage source (2AAA batteries)
across the bridge circuit. Follow the setup shown in the photograph below (Figure 10.)
(NOTE: When hooking up a voltage source, always connect the ground lead (- lead)
first.)
Figure 10 (Hookup for Voltage Measurements)
12. Switch meter to measure voltage.
13. Record initial voltage. V
R
= _______________________
NOTE: A balanced bridge should have a zero voltage as V
R.
Why does your bridge not
measure zero?
14. Press down on the middle of the diaphragm.
15. Record the voltage for three different pressures, increasing the pressure before each
recording.
a. V
1
= __________________
b. V
2
= __________________
c. V
3
= __________________
16. How did the applied pressure affect the voltage across the bridge?
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 16 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
_________________________________________________________________
The following steps allows you to further explore this device and the effects that pressure has on
the resistance and voltage of a Wheatstone bridge sensing circuit.
17. Using the ice pick or nail, punch a hole in the side of the paint can. The hole should be
big enough to insert the TT tip of a syringe.
18. Pull an empty syringe to about 1.5 ml of air.
19. Place the tip of the syringe in the hole. Make it snug and as airtight as possible.
20. You can now simulate increases in pressure (pushing on the syringe) and decreases in
pressure (pulling on the syringe).
21. Test your pressure sensor model using various changes in pressure.
22. This model could also be used to show how a MEMS pressure sensor is affected by
temperature. Find ways to increase or decrease the ambient temperature or the
temperature of the air trapped inside the can. Study the effects on the circuits output.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 17 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
Post-Activity Questions
1. In the above procedure, what factors could have an effect on the outcome (the resistivity
of the bridge circuit)?
2. What is meant by the reference voltage or reference resistance of the Wheatstone
bridge? Does this stay consistent? Why or why not?
3. What determines the reference voltage / resistance?
4. What causes a change in resistance or voltage?
5. Describe three (3) MEMS that use a diaphragm pressure sensor.
6. How could this pressure sensor model be improved upon?
Summary
A common MEMS pressure sensor uses a Wheatstone bridge sensing circuit on a flexible
diaphragm. A change in pressure creates a deflection of the diaphragm. This deflection causes
the variable resistors of the bridge to expand, increasing circuit resistance indicating a change in
pressure. The amount of change in resistance is proportional to the change in pressure from
reference pressure to applied pressure.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 18 of 18
Int_WheatB_AC02_PG_061511 PS Model Activity
Related SCME Units
Wheatstone Bridge Overview unit
Wheatstone Bridge Derivation Activity
MTTC Pressure Sensor Learning Module
If using a one-quart paint can, this template should
print out to approximately 3 3/8" (8.57 cm) in diameter
and can be used as a template to trace out the
piezoresistive Wheatstone bridge structure.
Disclaimer
The information contained herein is considered to be true and accurate; however the Southwest
Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) makes no guarantees concerning the authenticity of
any statement. SCME accepts no liability for the content of this unit, or for the consequences of
any actions taken on the basis of the information provided.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced
Technological Education (ATE) Program through Grants #0830384 and 0902411.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
University of New Mexico
MEMS Introduction Topic
Wheatstone Bridge Derivation Activity
Shareable Content Object (SCO)
This SCO is part of the Learning Module
Wheatstone Bridge Overview
Target audiences: High School, Community College.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological Education
(ATE) Program through Grants #0830384 and 0902411.
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors
and creators, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Copyright 2009 - 2011 by the Southwest Center for Microsystems Education
and
The Regents of the University of New Mexico
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
800 Bradbury Drive SE, Ste. 235
Albuquerque, NM 87106-4346
Phone: 505-272-7150
Website: www.scme-nm.org email contact: mpleil@unm.edu
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 2 of 6
Int_WheatB_AC01_PG_061411 WB Derivation Activity
Wheatstone Bridge Derivation Activity
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This activity will involve using your knowledge of the Wheatstone bridge to derive the relationship
between V
in
(Input Voltage) and V
g
(Gauge Voltage) for a given circuit. You will also design a
Wheatstone bridge layout to get the maximum effect on the gauge voltage, V
g
.
It is recommended that you review the unit Wheatstone Bridge Overview if you haven't already. It
will enhance your understanding of the Wheatstone bridge circuitry as you complete this activity.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow approximately two hours to complete this activity.
Introduction
The Wheatstone bridge is one of the most sensitive and precise methods of measuring small
changes in resistance. This is possible through its use of transducers (devices which change one
form of energy into another, such as mechanical to electrical or electrical to mechanical). The
Wheatstone bridge incorporates one or more electrical transducers that change resistance as a result
of an environmental change or input (e.g. temperature, pressure, stress). This change is sensed by
the circuitry of the Wheatstone bridge which provides a useable electrical output (voltage)
representative of the input. The Wheatstone bridge is widely used today in macro-sized and micro-
sized sensors.
Basic Wheatstone Bridge Configuration
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 3 of 6
Int_WheatB_AC01_PG_061411 WB Derivation Activity
Activity Objectives
Objectives
Derive the mathematical relationship between output voltage (Vg, also referred to as gauge
voltage) and resistance in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Design the orientation of the resistors on a pressure sensor membrane to maximize the
effect on the gauge voltage.
Procedure I: Derivation Activity
1. Using basic laws of electronics (e.g. Ohm's and Kirchhoff's), derive the mathematical
relationship between input voltage, V
in,
vs. gauge voltage, V
g
in terms of input voltage, V
in
and resistance for the circuit given below.
V
g
=V
in
{f(R
1,
R
2
,R
3
,R
4
)}
Hint: Starting point would be V
g
= V
D
V
B
.
2. Using your results from 1), above, show that the Wheatstone bridge is balanced when
R
3
/R
4
= R
1
/R
2
.
a. What values of R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, and R
4
would yield a balanced bridge circuit?
b. Verify your mathematical derivation using these values of resistors.
c. Did your derivation yield a V
g
= 0 V? If not, then find and correct the problem and
repeat 2b.
3. Given a Wheatstone bridge with the following V
in
and R values, what is V
g
? ________
V
in
= 10 volts
R
1
= 75
R
2
= 100
R
3
= 100
R
4
= 75
4. If R
2
and R
3
are both variable resistors (transducer elements) and continue to increase above
100 , what effect would it have on V
g
?
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 4 of 6
Int_WheatB_AC01_PG_061411 WB Derivation Activity
Procedure II: Design a Wheatstone Bridge for a Pressure Sensor
In the case of a pressure sensor, all resistances are designed with the same geometries, therefore, all
the resistors have the same resistance values and the circuit is initially balanced and V
g
(gauge
voltage) is zero.
Variable resisters in the bridge change due to stress on the resistor's material. This is due to the
fact that resistance is a function of the resistor's material (resistivity or ), length (L) and cross
sectional area (A):
R= (L/A)
When metal is stressed, it stretches (for instance, a gold resistor on a pressure sensor membrane).
The length, L, increases, which results in an increase in resistance, R. The cross-sectional area, A,
decreases; however, does not change as it is a property of the material.
In a pressure sensor, the Wheatstone bridge can be fabricated so that two of the four resistors are
effectively stressed when the membrane is stretched. The stress on the other two resistors is
ineffective or negligible. Such fabrication will result in a response from the Wheatstone bridge
that is sensitive to small changes in pressure. All four resistors on fabricated on the membrane.
Why? Because there is also a temperature dependence of resistance and you want all of the
resistors exposed to the exact same temperature environment. All four resistors should be of the
same length, width and thickness so they are balanced under no stress. Most pressure sensor
systems have an offset circuit to make up for slight variations in the fabrication process.
Questions
1. For maximum effect on the gauge voltage, V
g,
which two resistors in the schematic (left)
could be variable and which two resistors could be fixed?
2. Using the image to on the right, how would you orient the resistors (narrow gray lines) on a
membrane (green in the right image)?
a. On the schematic, indicate the variable resistors with an arrow.
b. On the pressure sensor diagram, label the four resistors on the diaphgragm and the
electrical nodes (A, B, C, and D), indicating V
in
and V
g
connections.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 5 of 6
Int_WheatB_AC01_PG_061411 WB Derivation Activity
Post-Activity Questions
Here is an example of a pressure sensor Wheatstone bridge in a circular configuration. This is the
circuit you will build if you complete the "Pressure Sensor Model Activity. This bridge is created
by stretching a balloon membrane across an open can and applying a graphite circuit to the
membrane. Note, resistors R
2
and R
3
are configured parallel to the edge of the can, and hence, will
not stretch as the membrane expands. R
1
and R
4
resistors are configured over the open part of the
membrane or can, parallel to the radius, and will be subject to the highest tension (stretching) and
experiencing the greatest piezoresistive effect.
1. Based on the schematic given above, write the equation for V
ab
in terms of resistance and V
in
.
2. Sketch a graph that shows the relationship between V
ab
and Variable Resistance (R
v
).
3. How would the graph change if R
2
and R
3
were variable and R
1
and R
4
were fixed? (Justify
your answer with formulas and/or a graph.)
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 6 of 6
Int_WheatB_AC01_PG_061411 WB Derivation Activity
Disclaimer
The information contained herein is considered to be true and accurate; however the Southwest
Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) makes no guarantees concerning the authenticity of
any statement. SCME accepts no liability for the content of this unit, or for the consequences of
any actions taken on the basis of the information provided.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program.
Revision: 5/20/11 www.scme-nm.org
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
Learning Modules available for download @ scme-nm.org
MEMS Introductory Topics
MEMS History
MEMS: Making Micro Machines DVD and LM (Kit
available)
Units of Weights and Measures
A Comparison of Scale: Macro, Micro, and Nano
Introduction to Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Wheatstone Bridge (Pressure Sensor Model Kit
available)
MEMS Applications
MEMS Applications Overview
Microcantilevers (Dynamic Cantilever Kit available)
Micropumps Overview
BioMEMS
BioMEMS Overview
BioMEMS Applications Overview
DNA Overview
DNA to Protein Overview
Cells The Building Blocks of Life
Biomolecular Applications for bioMEMS
BioMEMS Therapeutics Overview
BioMEMS Diagnostics Overview
Clinical Laboratory Techniques and MEMS
MEMS for Environmental and Bioterrorism
Applications
Regulations of bioMEMS
DNA Microarrays (GeneChip