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Cell cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis Due: 3:00pm on Monday, April 15, 2013 Note: You will receive no credit for late submissions. To learn more, read your instructor's Grading Policy
Hint 1.
Consider the kinds of cell reproduction different species need. ANSWER: They need only mitosis to make large numbers of cells such as sperm. They need only meiosis if they produce egg cells. They need both if they are producing animal gametes. A single-celled organism only needs mitosis. They need meiosis if the cells are producing organs such as ovaries.
Correct
The form of cell division that produces animal gametes is meiosis, not mitosis. The production of gametes in plants is a function of both mitosis and meiosis (Ch. 38).
Hint 1.
Consider the events of prophase. ANSWER: Sister chromatids do not pair up until division starts. They have uncoiled to form long, thin strands. They leave the nucleus and are dispersed to other parts of the cell. The spindle must move them to the metaphase plate before they become visible. The DNA has not been replicated yet.
Correct
Except during the M phase, the DNA is extended, allowing its genes to be transcribed for protein synthesis.
Chapter 12 Question 2
Part A
If there are 20 chromatids in a cell in G1 phase, how many centromeres are there? ANSWER:
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40 20 10 30 80
Correct
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Hint 2. The main stages of the cell cycle
The cell cycle can be divided into two principle stages: interphase and the mitotic (M) phase. Interphase consists of three subphases: G1, S, and G2. During interphase, the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. The mitotic phase includes mitosis (division of the nucleus, which itself is divided into further subphases) and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).
Hint 3. What cellular structures are involved in the separation of chromosomes during mitosis?
A number of cellular structures are involved in physically separating the duplicated chromosomes into two daughter nuclei during mitosis. Which of the following statements does not correctly describe the role of a cellular structure in mitosis? ANSWER: During mitosis, the attachment of the sister chromatids to each other at the centromere is broken, permitting the chromatids to separate. Every chromosome is attached to the mitotic spindle by two sets of microtubules, one extending from each pole of the cell. The kinetochore is the structure that holds the sister chromatids together. The centrosomes are the organizing centers for the formation of the mitotic spindle in animal cells.
ANSWER:
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The key structures involved in mitosis are labeled in this diagram of an animal cell that shows the two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome beginning to attach to the mitotic spindle by means of their kinetochores. The centrosomes anchor the mitotic spindle at opposite ends of the cell.
Hint 3. What processes occur during the M phase of the cell cycle?
The M (mitotic) phase begins when the cell passes through the G2 checkpoint. It is typically the shortest, but most complex, phase of the cell cycle. Which three of the following processes occur during the M phase of the cell cycle? ANSWER: cytokinesis centrosome replication formation of the mitotic spindle separation of sister chromatids DNA replication
ANSWER:
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Many organisms contain cells that do not normally divide. These cells exit the cell cycle before the G1 checkpoint. Once a cell passes the G1 checkpoint, it usually completes the cell cycle--that is, it divides. The first step in preparing for division is to replicate the cells DNA in the S phase. In the G2 phase, the centrosome replicates. In early M phase, the centrosomes move away from each other toward the poles of the cell, in the process organizing the formation of the mitotic spindle. At the end of the M phase when mitosis is complete, the cell divides (cytokinesis), forming two genetically identical daughter cells.
Sister chromatids first form in the G1 phase, and are present until they separate in early anaphase. Sister chromatids first form in the S phase, and are present until they separate in early anaphase. Sister chromatids first form during prophase, and are present until they separate in telophase.
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ANSWER:
Correct
Sister chromatids form when DNA replicates in the S phase. The sister chromatids become individual chromosomes once they separate in early anaphase. Similarly, the cellular DNA content doubles in the S phase when the DNA replicates. However, the cells DNA content does not return to its normal (undoubled) levels until after cytokinesis is complete and two daughter cells have formed. The condensation state of the DNA is not related to the presence or absence of sister chromatids. The DNA condenses in prophase and remains condensed until after the sister chromatids separate and the new daughter cells begin to form. In late telophase/cytokinesis, the emphasis shifts to cell growth and DNA replication for the next cell cycle. For these processes to occur, the DNA needs to be de-condensed so it is accessible to the cellular machinery involved in transcription.
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Hint 3. What are the key characteristics of anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis?
In anaphase and telophase, the chromosomes separate and two daughter nuclei are formed. In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell divides. Sort the following processes into the appropriate bin to indicate the earliest stage in which the process can be observed in an animal cell. ANSWER:
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ANSWER:
Correct
As these six micrographs demonstrate, cellular events observable by light microscopy can be used to define the six stages of mitosis and cytokinesis. However, deciphering which stage is which in real cells can be much more challenging than in the drawings of idealized cells you see in your textbook. Thus, it is important to carefully observe the completeness of the mitotic spindle and the location of the chromosomes, as well as how condensed the chromosomes are.
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To help you sort the processes in this question, consider that many of the cellular events that precede metaphase are reversed after metaphase. For example, prior to metaphase, the DNA condenses in preparation for chromosome separation. After metaphase, the DNA de-condenses once chromosome separation is complete.
Hint 2. Which proteins are involved in changes to cellular structures during mitosis?
Many of the changes in structure that occur in stages of mitosis prior to metaphase prepare the cell for the separation of the chromosomes. These changes are reversed in the stages following metaphase, after the chromosomes have separated. Several proteins are involved in these changes. Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences. Not all terms will be used. ANSWER:
Consider a cell in which chromosome movement along the mitotic spindle is accomplished by motor proteins in the kinetochores. Drag the labels onto the flowchart to show the correct sequence of events in kinetochore function during mitosis.
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ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Correct
The micrographs in Part A show some of the cellular processes that occur during the stages of mitosis. In prophase, the microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to assemble from individual tubulin subunits. As the identical chromatids of each pair of sister chromatids condense during this stage, they are held together by cohesin proteins. Prometaphase is marked by fragmentation of the nuclear envelope, expansion of the spindle into the nuclear region, and attachment of some spindle fibers to the chromosomes via the kinetochores. Metaphase, marked by the alignment of chromsomes along the metaphase plate, is brought about by kinetochores aligning and then remaining motionless relative to the poles of the cell. In anaphase, the cohesin proteins are cleaved, and the kinetochores move toward the poles of the cell, separating the sister chromatids. As telophase proceeds, the kinetochore microtubules of the spindle disassemble. As the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, the nuclear envelopes of the two new daughter nuclei form.
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In animal cells, while the chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell during anaphase, the nonkinetochore microtubules cause the cell to elongate.
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ANSWER:
Correct
The mitotic spindle is the machinery that guides the separation of chromosomes in anaphase. Prior to metaphase, the mitotic spindle is constructed by lengthening microtubules that extend from each centrosome. In metaphase, the kinetochore microtubules have attached each pair of sister chromatids, and the nonkinetochore microtubules overlap extensively at the metaphase plate. During anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten as the chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell. At the same time, the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen and push past each other, elongating the cell. By the end of telophase, all the microtubules associated with the mitotic spindle have disassembled.
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Consider these three questions concerning this animal cell that has been treated with the inhibitor: 1. Will this cell elongate during mitosis? (yes or no?) 2. Will the sister chromatids separate from each other? (yes or no?) 3. Will the chromosomes move to the poles of the cell? (yes or no?) Type in the answer to each of the three questions (either yes or no) separated by commas. For example, if the answer to all three questions is yes, you should enter yes,yes,yes.
Hint 3. How to approach question 3 -- Will the chromosomes move to the poles of the cell?
In this type of cell, motor proteins in the kinetochore are responsible for moving the chromosomes along the kinetochore microtubules. Is any component of this machinery affected by the inhibitor treatment? If so, will the chromosomes be able to move to the poles of the cell? ANSWER: yes,yes,no
Correct
The inhibitor does not affect the cleavage of cohesins (the proteins that hold the sister chromatids together), the attachment of the chromosomes to the kinetochore microtubules, or the elongation of the cell due to the nonkinetochore microtubules. The inhibitor only affects the motor protein that pulls the chromosome along the kinetochore microtubule in anaphase. Thus, in the treated cell, the sister chromatids can still separate at the beginning of anaphase due to the fact that the cell is elongating (the centrosomes at the poles of the cell are moving farther apart) and the kinetochore microtubules still connect the chromosomes to the centrosomes. However, because the chromosomes cannot move along the kinetochore microtubules, they will never reach the poles of the cell.
Part A
Which of these phases encompasses all of the stages of mitosis?
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ANSWER: B D E C A
Correct
This is mitosis.
Part B
During _____ both the contents of the nucleus and the cytoplasm are divided. ANSWER: the mitotic phase G1 S mitosis G2
Correct
The mitotic phase encompasses both mitosis and cytokinesis.
Part C
During _____ the cell grows and replicates both its organelles and its chromosomes. ANSWER: interphase mitosis G1 S cytokinesis
Correct
These are the events of interphase.
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Part A
Which of the following is a function of the S phase in the cell cycle?
Hint 1.
What does the S in S phase represent? ANSWER: The sorting of chromosomes The synchronization of organelle division The synthesis of sister chromatids The separation of sister chromatids
Correct
DNA replication occurs during S phase and results in two sister chromatids for each original chromosome.
Part B
The copying of chromosomes occurs during which of the following phases of the cell cycle?
Hint 1.
Consider what each phase name stands for. ANSWER: G2 phase S phase G1 phase M phase
Correct
Chromosomes must undergo replication before mitosis can occur; this copying occurs during the S phase.
Part C
For the first several divisions of early frog embryos, cells proceed directly from the M phase to the S phase and back to M without gaps. Which of the following is likely to be true about dividing cells in early frog embryos?
Hint 1.
What normally occurs during gap phases? ANSWER:
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Without gap phases, the cells have no opportunity to grow.
Part D
True or false? The M phase is characterized by the replication and division of a cell's chromosomes.
Hint 1.
Cells prepare for DNA synthesis during the G1 phase. ANSWER: True False
Correct
Correct: Cells replicate their chromosomes during the S phase and divide partition their chromosomes during the M phase.
Part E
If an organism normally has 34 chromosomes, how many molecules of DNA should there be in the G1 phase of the cell cycle?
Hint 1.
Review the cell cycle, the timing of DNA replication, and the timing of segregation of chromosomes during mitosis. ANSWER: 17 136 34 68
Correct
There is one DNA molecule per chromosome.
Part F
Which of the following events would cause the cell cycle to arrest?
Hint 1.
Consider the assessments that must be made at each of the three checkpoints in the cell cycle. ANSWER: Poor nutrient conditions Complete chromosome replication Chromosomes lined up along the metaphase plate Synthesis of cyclins by growth factors and activation of a cyclin-Cdk complex
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Poor nutrient conditions would arrest the cell cycle at the G1 checkpoint.
Mitosis (3 of 3): Comparing Cell Division in Animals, Plants, and Bacteria (BioFlix tutorial)
The division of any cell, prokaryotic or eukaryotic, requires that the genetic information in each of the parent cells chromosomes be faithfully copied and distributed into each daughter cell. Only then does the cell physically divide. Because of their divergent evolutionary paths, bacteria, plants, and animals have somewhat different mechanisms of chromosome separation and cell division.
Hint 2. What structures in bacterial cells are likely involved in chromosome separation?
A bacterial cell contains a single, circular chromosome. As in a eukaryotic cell, after replication of the DNA, the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the bacterial cell prior to cell division by a mechanism that is not fully understood. In order for the chromosomes to separate, they must attach to something in the cell. Based on what is known about how bacterial chromosomes separate, which of the following structural features of a bacterial cell likely play a role in chromosome separation? Select the two that apply. ANSWER:
plasma membrane nuclear envelope spindle microtubules origin of replication (where DNA replication starts on the chromosome)
Hint 3. How do structural properties of bacterial chromosomes influence what happens to them during cell division?
Although all chromosomes consist of DNA, bacterial chromosomes are structurally distinct from their eukaryotic cousins. How do these differences affect what happens to bacterial chromosomes during cell division? Which of the following statements are correct? Select the two that apply. ANSWER:
Following replication of the DNA, bacterial chromosomes remain physically associated with each other until just before cell division occurs. A bacterial chromosome consists of double-stranded DNA, and thus replication of the DNA before cell division is not necessary. A bacterial chromosome is highly folded and coiled, but lacks the fully condensed structure of a eukaryotic chromosome during cell division.
ANSWER:
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Although the processes of chromosome separation in bacteria and eukaryotes have a common evolutionary origin, the actual mechanisms are different. Structurally, bacterial cells contain a single chromosome that is much shorter than those in eukaryotic cells, and bacterial cells lack a mitotic spindle. The bacterial chromosome does not fully condense before separation. However, the physical separation of the replicated bacterial chromosomes still involves attachment to some structure in the cell: possibly the plasma membrane at the origins of replication.
Hint 2. What role, if any, do either microtubules or microfilaments play in cytokinesis in plant cells?
Both microtubules and microfilaments are parts of the cytoskeleton and are important in many cellular processes, including motion and determination of cell shape. Which of the following statements correctly describes the role of these cytoskeletal elements in plant cytokinesis? ANSWER:
Microfilaments cause constriction (cleavage) of the plasma membrane. Neither microtubules nor microfilaments play a role in plant cell cytokinesis. Both microtubules and microfilaments move the cell plate to the center of the cell, where it fuses with the plasma membrane. Microtubules guide Golgi-derived vesicles to the middle of the cell where they form the cell plate.
ANSWER:
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In plant cell division, after chromosome separation, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle reorganize into a network that guides vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus to the plane of cell division. These vesicles begin to fuse, forming the cell plate. As more vesicles are added to the cell plate, it grows outward, eventually fusing with the parent cell plasma membrane. Membrane from the vesicles forms the new plasma membrane for each daughter cell. At the same time, materials that were enclosed in the vesicles form the new cell wall between the new plasma membranes of the daughter cells.
Part C - The roles of proteins in bacterial cell division and eukaryotic cytokinesis
The division of a bacterial cell into two daughter cells (called binary fission) is accomplished by a protein called FtsZ. FtsZ is very similar to the tubulin subunits that form microtubules in eukaryotes. After the replicated bacterial chromosomes have moved to opposite ends of the cell, a ring of FtsZ proteins forms inside the plasma membrane in the region where the cell will divide. As the FtsZ ring constricts, the plasma membrane and bacterial cell wall fold in and eventually separate into two cells.
Plant and animal cells also require cytoskeletal proteins for cytokinesis, although the roles these proteins play differ among bacteria, plants, and animals. For each space in the table, drag the appropriate label to indicate if the statement is true or false for each group of organisms.
Hint 2. What roles do microfilaments and microtubules or related proteins play in cell division in bacteria, plants, and animals?
Bacteria lack the distinct microfilaments and microtubules that dominate the cytoskeletons of plant and animal cells. However, bacteria contain proteins that are similar to actin (the building block of microfilaments) and tubulin (the building block of microtubules). The tubulin-like proteins in bacteria function in the formation of two daughter cells through binary fission. Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences. ANSWER:
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Hint 3. Comparison of cytokinesis in plant and animal cells and bacterial cell division
Proteins associated with the cytoskeleton are essential to cytokinesis in plants and animals. Similarly, cytoskeleton-like proteins are essential to cell division in bacteria. The bacterial origin of plants and animals might suggest that these proteins and mechanisms of division are all related; however, evolution is not always that straightforward. Bacterial and animal cells divide in a very similar manner but accomplish division using different proteins. In contrast, plants and bacteria divide in a very different manner but accomplish division using very similar proteins.
ANSWER:
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The physical division of one cell into two during cell division is common to all types of cells. In all cases, proteins related to the cytoskeleton play some critical role. However, the mechanism by which division occurs depends on whether a rigid cell wall is present. In bacteria and animal cells, which do not have a rigid cell wall, division occurs by constriction of a ring of proteins (microtubule-like proteins in bacteria and microfilaments in animal cells) that pinches the cell in two. In plants, which do have a rigid cell wall, microtubules guide the aggregation of Golgi-derived vesicles to form the cell plate, which eventually forms the new cell wall and plasma membrane between the daughter cells.
Hint 1.
This is the first phase after the M phase. ANSWER: G1 cytokinesis S M G2
Correct
In mammalian cells, this checkpoint is termed the restriction point.
Hint 1.
The S stage occurs between G1 and G2. ANSWER: S: immediately precedes cell division M: duplication of DNA G1: follows cell division G2: cell division All of the above are correctly matched.
Correct
After mitosis and cytokinesis, the newly formed daughter cells enter the G1 phase.
Hint 1.
Consider each of these processes.
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ANSWER: Duplicated chromosomes attach to the plasma membrane. Replicated strands of DNA separate. The result produces 2 nuclei. Following the process, a membrane separates the 2 copies. Replication of DNA begins at an origin.
Correct
This is not true of mitosis.
Chapter 12 Question 4
Part A
If there are 20 centromeres in a cell at anaphase, how many chromosomes are there in each daughter cell following cytokinesis? ANSWER: 40 30 10 80 20
Correct
Chapter 12 Question 9
Part A
Measurements of the amount of DNA per nucleus were taken on a large number of cells from a growing fungus. The measured DNA levels ranged from 3 to 6 picograms per nucleus. In which stage of the cell cycle did the nucleus contain 6 picograms of DNA? ANSWER: G1 M G0 S G2
Correct
Chapter 12 Question 14
Part A
Using which of the following techniques would enable your lab group to distinguish between a cell in G2 and a cell from the same organism in G1? ANSWER:
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radioactive-labeled nucleotides fluorescence microscopy labeled kinetochore proteins electron microscopy spectrophotometry
Correct
Misconception Question 56
Part A
If a eukaryotic cell is in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, which statement about the cells chromosomes must be correct? ANSWER: The chromosomes are preparing for DNA synthesis. Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids. Each chromosome is made of a complex of DNA and associated proteins.
Correct
Eukaryotic cells are made of chromatin, a complex of DNA and associated protein molecules. The proteins maintain the structure of the chromosome and help control gene activity.
Misconception Question 57
Part A
Which statement provides the best description of the interphase portion of the cell cycle? ANSWER: Interphase is a brief period between mitosis and chromosome duplication. During interphase, a cell is metabolically active. Interphase is a resting stage prior to cell division.
Correct
Interphase accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle and includes many key events critical to the cell cycle. It is not a resting stage; the cell is metabolically active during this phase.
Misconception Question 59
Part A
How do cancer cells differ from normal cells? ANSWER: Cultured cancer cells exhibit anchorage dependence. Cancer cells may be immortal. Cancer cells trigger chromosomal changes in surrounding cells.
Correct
Cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely in culture if they are given a continual supply of nutrients; in essence, they are immortal. Read about HeLa cells.
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Score Summary: Your score on this assignment is 81.5%. You received 13.85 out of a possible total of 17 points.
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