BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS OUTLINE

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH WHY RESEARCH? TYPES OF RESEARCH HOW MANAGER FACILITATES RESEARCH SELECTION OF A RESEARCHER INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER

RESEARCH DEFINITIONS
THE PROCESS OF FINDING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS AFTER STUDYING AND ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS. THE PROCESS OF REFINING HUMAN EXPERIENCE FOR ADDING INTO THE STOCK OF KNOWLEDGE ANY ORGANIZED INQUIRY CARRIED OUT TO PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS. 2

BUSINESS RESEARCH DEFINED

SYSTEMATIC INQUIRY THAT PROVIDES INFORMATION TO GUIDE BUSINESS DECISIONS BY REPORTING,DESCRIBING,EXPLAINING AND PREDICTING ORGANIZED,SYSTEMATIC,DATABASED, CRITICAL,OBJECTIVE,SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY INTO A SPECIFIC PROBLEM TO FIND SOLUTIONS. 3

WHY RESEARCH?
NEED FOR INFORMATION FOR INFORMED RATIONAL DECISION MAKING DUE TO : IMPROVED INFO AVAILABILITY TO COMPETITORS. BETTER DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL TOOLS FOR OPTIMAL DECISIONMAKING. PUBLIC MANDATE FOR BETTER QUALITY AT AFFORDABLE PRICES. THE BASIS FOR RESEARCH IS THE CURIOSITY-THE EXCITEMENT TO KNOW THE UNKNOWN. 4

AREAS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

ACCOUNTS;BUDGETS,COSTS PRICES FINANCE,OPERATIONS,MERGERS, INFO SYSTEMS,STOCK EXCHANGES ATTITUDES,HRM,STRATEGIES MARKETING,PRODUCT IMAGE,CONSUMER PREFERECES,PROMOTION,NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ETC. 5

THE TYPES OF RESEARCH

APPLIED RESEARCH PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING OF CURRENT NATURE.RELATE TO POLICY,PERFORFANCE AND ACTIONS. BASIC RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF THEORETICAL NATUREGENERAL PROBLEMS. NO IMPACT ON ACTIONS,POLICY,PERFORMANCE.ADDS TO BODY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 6

 IDENTIFY SOLVE PROBLEMS DIFFERENTIATE GOOD AND BAD RESEARCH FACTORS INFLUENCING RESEARCH PROBLEM SITUATION TAKE CALCULATED RISK BY DECISIONS PREVENT POSSIBLE VESTED INTEREST IN A SITUATION COMBINE EXPERIENCE WITH SCIENTIFIC APPROACH IN DECISION MAKING. 7

WHY MANAGER SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH RESEARCH TOOLS

ISSUES IN ENGAGING RESEARCHERS

PROBLEM SELECTION LOCATION ,SELECTION ,COMPARE CREDENTIALS UNDERSTANDING WITH CONSULTANT RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION,VARIABLES, METHODOLOGY,CONSULTANT REQUIREMENTS. EXPLICT ROLES AND EXPECTATIONS OF CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER. ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES 8 CARIFICATION

INTERNAL CONSULTANT
ADVANTAGES ACCEPTANCE BY EMPLOYEES LESS TIME NEEDED-KNOW THE ORGANIZATION AVAILABLE FOR IMPLEMENTATION. LESS EXPENSIVE DISADVANTAGES LESS INNOVATIVE-STEREOTYPE VESTED INTERESTS EXPERTISE NOT VALUED 9

EXTERNAL CONSULTANT
ADVANTAGES DIVERSE EXPERIENCE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING SUITABLE FOR COMPLEX PROBLEM OR IF VESTED INTERESTS DISADVANTAGES EXPENSIVE NEED MORE TIME DIFFICULTY IN GETTING EMPLOYEES COOPERATION 10

 FACILITATE DECISION MAKING BY MANAGER BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF MODEL SUGGESTED BY CONSULTANT FACILITATE IMPLEMENTATION OPENS PROMOTION AVENUES BY BETTER DECISION MAKING UNDERSTANDS NEED ,COST AND BENEFIT OF RESEARCH 11

RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ENHANCES MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS

ETHICS IN RESEARCH
STANDARDS OF BEHOVIOUR IN RESEARCH. SAFE GUARDS INTERESTS OF MANAGERS,RESEARCHERS,ANALYSTS, DATA PROVIDERS ETC. NEED FOR ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR AT ALL STAGES OF RESEARCH PROCEESS-DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,PRESENTATION OF RESULTS. 12

WHAT DOES RESEARCH DO?

VERIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS,QUESTIONS,ANSWERS. TESTS LOGICAL VALIDITY OF HUNCHES EXAMINES EMPIRICAL SUPPORT OF DEFINITIONS,ACCEPTED BELIEFS. IDENTIFIES SOURCES CAUSES OF TENDENCIES FINDS INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY EXAMINING HYPOTHESIS. 13

SCIENTIFIC THINKING OUTLINE

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE THE STYLES OF THINKING THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION THE HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD 14

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF LOGICAL JUSTIFICATION BEST CONCEIVED TRUTH IN EACH PERIOD TESTED KNOWIEDGE-FINDINGS NO UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED AND STABLE AUTHORITY OF ASCERTAINING TRUTHS-LIKE WITCHCRAFT,MYSTIC POWERS,PARAPSYCHOLOGY,INHERITED TRAITS ETC. 15

SCIENCE CONTIUED
PHYSICAL SCIENCES BETTER DEVELOPED AND FUNDED,MORE OBJECTIVE,TESTABLE AND GENERALIZABLE THAN SOCIAL SCIENCES THE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CHANGES NO FIELD OF SCIENCE IS FREE FROM GLARING IGNORANCE AND CONTRADICTIONS

16

STYLES OF THINKING
IDEALISM-INTERPRET IDEAS -UNTESTED OPINION--LITERARY INFORMAL-EXISTENTIALISM .EMPIRICAL-DATA BASED -SCIENTIFIC METHOD RATIONALISM-REASON BASED -SELFEVIDENT TRUTH-DEATH,R.DRIVE 17

CONTINUED..
-PERSONS OF AUTHORITY BY STATUS,RATHER THAN EXPERTISE,INTEGRITY,QUALITY -POSTULATIONAL REDUCE PROBLEMS TO MATH .TERMS AND DEDUCE FROM RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES.E.G.SIMULATION OF PRICES,OUTPUTS TO OPTOMIZE PROFITS 18

THINKING CONTD
DEDUCTION-REASONED CONCLUSION BY GENERALIZING A KNOWN FACT.MUST HAVE A VALID PREMISE AND TRUE IN REAL WORLD INDUCTION-CONCLUSION FROM OBSERVED EVIDENCE NOT STRONGLY RELATED.INFERENTIAL JUMP BEYOND THE EVIDENCE PRESENTED COMBINE INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

HALLMARKS OF SCINTIFIC INVESTIGATION

PURPOSIVENESS RIGOR TESTABILITY REPLICABILITY PRECISION AND CONFIDENCE OBJECTIVITY GENERALIZABILITY PARSIMONY

HALLMARKS CONTD.
PURPOSIVENESS -AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH PROJECT RIGOR -EXACT METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,CONCLUS. TESTABILITY -STATISTICAL TEST OF CONCLUSION

CONTINUED..
REPLICABILITY -REPEATED UNDER SIMILAR CNDITIONS BY OTHERS PRECISION -CONFIDENCE INTERVAL,LIMITSOF ACCURACY CONFIDENCE -LEVEL,PROBABILITY OF RESULT WITHIN INTERVAL.

HALLMARKS CONT.
OBJECTIVE -BASED ON REASONING EMPIRICAL DATA,NOT SUBJECTIVE GENERALIZABILITY -RESULTS OR CONCLUSIONS CAN BE GENERALIZED FOR USE BY OTHERS PARSIMONEY -SIMPLE TO HANDLE VARIABLES,ANALYSIS AND INTERPRET

HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD STEPS

OBSERVATION PREL.INFO GATHERING-PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION THEORY FORMULATION HYPOTHESIZING FURTHER DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS DEDUCTION-CONCLUSION

STEPS CONT
OBSERVATION -SENSE CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT WHICH ARE UNSATISFACTORY.E.G.MIS NOT USED WELL BY MANAGERS PREL.INFORMATION GATHERING -PROBLEM AREA IDENTIFICATION. -INTERVIEW AND LITERATURE SURVEY THEORY FORMULATION. -IDENTIFY VARIABLES AND THEIR RELATIOSHIP TO THE PROBLEM

STEPS CONT.
HYPOTHESIZING -FROM THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES CERTAIN TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS CAN BE GENERATED FURTHER DATA COLLECTION -DATA NEEDED TO TEST THE HYPOTHESIS

CONTINUED
DATA ANALYSIS -STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA TO SEE IF IT SUPPORTS THE HYPOTHESIS DEDUCTION -BY INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

RESEARCH PROCESS OUTLINE

OBSERVE BROAD PROBLEM AREA PRELLIM.DATA COLLECTION PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK HYPOTHESIS GENERATION RESEARCH DESIGN DATA COLLECT,ANALYSE ,INTERPRET HYPOTHESIS CONCLUSION PRESENTATION OF RESULTS MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING 28

BROAD PROBLEM AREA

CURRENT PROBLEMS ,COMPLAINTS,CONCEPTUAL ISSUES,POLICIES NEEDING IMPROVEMENT /EMPIRICAL ANSWERS.E.G. SALES NOT PICKING UP FLEXI TIME PROBLEMS TRAINING PROG.EFFECTIVENESS NEW INFORMATION SYSTEM NOT UTILISED

PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION

PRIMARY,SECONDARY DATA SOURCES UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW BACKGROUND DATA CONCEPTUAL FACTORS STRUCTURAL FACTORS ,MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY WORK ATTITUDES AND ENVIRONMENT LITERATURE SURVEY

BACKGROUND DATA
ORIGIN,HISTOY,OWNERSHIP CHARTER,PURPOSE LOCATION,DEVELOPMENT HUMAN,FINANCIAL AND OTHER RESOURCES FINANCIAL POSITION 5-10 YEARS

STRUCTURAL FACTORS MANAGEMENT PHILOS.

ROLES,POSITIONS,WORK FLOW SPECIALISATION COMMUNICATION CHANNELS CNTROL SYSTEMS AND SPAN

WORK ATTITUDES ENVIRONMENT

BELIEFS IN JOB WORK INTERRELATIONSHIPS SUPERVISORY STYLE PARTICIPATION PROMOTION,DEVELOPMENT ,REWARD SYSTEM SOCIAL ORIENTATION OF FIRM UNDERSTANDING ISSUES RATHER THAN THE SYMPTOMS

WHY LITERATURE SURVEY?

REVIEW PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES NO REINVENTING THE WHEEL REVIEW ALL ASPECTS OF PROBLEM HELPS DEVELOP THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR HYPOTHESIS TEST IMPROVES TESTABILITY/REPLICABILITY CLEAR AND CONCISE PROBLEM STATEMENT PERCEIVED TO BE SCIENTIFIC AND SIGNIFICANT

CONDUCT LIT. SURVEY

BASED ON ISSUES AND INTERVIEW SURVEY RELEVANT VARIABLES BIBLIOGRAHICAL CITATION DATA BASES[DB] ABSTRACT DB-CITATIONS AND SUMMARIES FULLTEXT DB;GLOBAL NATIONAL SUBJECT AUTHOR TOPIC TEXT EXTRACT RELEVANT INFO ON LINE LIT. REVIEW WRITING TO INCL.SUBJECT INTRODUCTION,RESEARCH QUESTION AND TO BUILD ON PREV.RESEARCH

PROBLEM DEFINITION
A WELL DEFINED STATEMENT GAP BETWEEN ACTUAL AND DESIRED STATE-PROBLEM SYMPYOMS NOT TO BE DEFINED AS PROBLEMS CLEAR CONCISE ISSUE STATEMENT TO BE INVESTIGATED FOR SOLUTION.E.G. HOW DOES NEW PACKAGING AFFECT PRODUCT SALES? WHAT ARE THE COMPNENTS OF GUALITY OF LIFE?

IMPORTANT ISSUES
MANAGERS TREAT SYMPTOMS AS PROBLEMS ANTECEDENTS-PROBLEMSCONSEQUENCES INFORM WORKERS HOW RESAERCH FACILITATE THEIR WORK CONFIDENTIALITY OF RESEARCH PURPOSE?

WHY THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK?

CONCEPTUAL MODEL THAT DISCUSSES RELATIONSHIPS OF VARIABLES IMPORTANT TO INVESTIGATION FROM IT TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS FOR EXAMINING DEVELOPED IT IS CENTRAL TO PROBLEM INVESTIGATION

OUTLINE:THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS

VARIABLES DEPENEDENT,INDEPENDENT,MODE RATING,INTERVENING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 39

VARIABLE DEFINED
ANYTHING THAT CAN TAKE DIFFERENT VALUES AT VARIOUS TIMES FOR THE SAME PERSON/OBJECT OR SAME TIME FOR DIFFERENT PERSONS/OBJECTS E.G. EXAM SCORES,ABSENTEEISM, MOTIVATION

DEPENDENT VARIALE?
OF PRIMARY INTEREST TO RESEARCHER FOR ANALYSIS TO FIND OUT WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE THE DV. EXAMPLES: -WHY SALES ARE NOT UPTO THE MARK?DV-SALES -ANALYSIS OF DEBT EQUITY RATIO OF PRODUCTION FIRMS IN KARACHI DVDEBT EQUITY RATIO

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE? [IV]

INFLUENCES THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN +/- WAY TO ESTABLISH CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP THE IV IS MANIPULATED EXAMPLES: -NEW PRODUCT SUCCESS>HIGHER FIRM STOCK PRICE[DV] -SUPERVISOR TRAINING>HIGHER PRODUCTION LEVEL[DV]

MODERATING VARIABLE
STRONG EFFECT ON IV-DV RELATIONSHIP AND MODIFIES IT >>NO.OF BOOKS AT HOME>READING ABILITY PARENT LITERACY{MV} >>WORKFORCE DIVERSITY>ORGAN.EFFECTIVENESS MANAGEMENT EXPERTISE{MV}

DISTINCTION IV-MV EXAMPLES

TRG PROGRAM>WILLINGNESS TO LEARN MV GROWTH NEEDS FORMAL TRG>EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY-MV EMPLOYEE AGE WORKER INTERACTION>JOB WELL DONE- MV STAY TIME AFTER WORK

INTERVENING VARIABLES
SURFACES BETWEEN THE TIME IV OPERATES TO INFLUENCE DV UNTIL THEIR IMPACT ON DV WORK FORCE DIV.>MANGMT EFFECT{MV}-CREATES SYNERGY[INT V]>ORG EFFECTIVENESS OCCURRENCE OF EACH VARIABLE DEPENDS ON GIVEN SITUATION FOR WHICH THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ADVANCED

VARIABLES SUMMARIZED
IV CAUSES INT V MV EXPLAINS DEPENDENT EFFECT BETWEEN IV AND INT V INT V IS FUNCTION OF IV AND SURFACES BETWEEN TIMES IV AND ITS IMPACT ON DV-TIME DIMENSION DV VARIANCE EFFECT CAUSED BY IV CONCERNS THE ANALYST TO FIND OUT WHAT INFLUENCES THE VARIABLE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FEATURES

IDENTIFY AND LABEL RELEVANT VARIABLE S DISCUSS RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES TO EACHOTHER INDICATE DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP + OR - REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP LITERATURE SURVEY SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

THEORET FRAMEW EXAMPLE

COMMUNICATION COCKPIT CREW COMMUNICATIN GROUND STAFF DECENTRALIZATION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES TRAINING- MODERATING VARIABLE AIR SAFETY CONTROL VIOLATIONSDEPENDENT VARIABLE

HYPOTHESIS DEFINED
A FORMAL TESTABLE STATEMENT LOGICALLY ASSUMED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES AS A TESTABLE STATEMENT THEORIZED RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES THAT CAN BE SCIENTIFICALLY TESTED BY ANALYSIS FOR CLUES TO PROBLEM SOLUTION

HYPOTHESIS EXAMPLES
IF THEN STATEMENT-IF EMPLOYEES ARE HEALTHY THEY WILL TAKE LEAVE LESS FREQUENTLY DIRECTIONAL-MORE OR LESS THAN THE GREATER THE STRESS IN THE JOB THE LOWER THE JOB SATISFATION NON DIRECTIONAL-THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND JOB SATISFATION

NULL HYPOTHESIS
STATES NO SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES OR NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS OF TWO GROUPS Ho:Um=Uw MOTIVATION LEVEL OF MEN AND WOMEN Ho:p=o

ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
STAEMENT EXPRESSING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES-DIFF.BETWEEN GROUPS Ha:Um< Uw Ha:p<o or p>o

RESEARCH DESIGN OUTLINE

PURPOSE OF STUDY TYPE OF INVESTIGATION RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE STUDY SETTING UNITS OF ANALYSIS TIME HORIZON

53

PURPOSE OF STUDY
EXPLORATION:SITUATION UNKNOWN,PRELIM.INFO FOR COMPREHENSIVE STUDY LATERE.G.ETHICAL VALUES OF DIFF.CULTURES DESCRIPTION:TO ASCERTAIN/DESCRIBE FEATURES OF A VARIABLE E.G.EMPLOYEES CHARACTERISTICS

Continued.
TESTING HYPOTHESIS:EXPLAIN NATURE OF RELATIONSHIPSDIFFERENCES-INTERDEPENDECES E.G.SALES VOLUME PROMOTION EFFORTS CASE STUDY:CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF SIMILAR SITUATIONS FOR GENERALIZATION

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION
CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP:ESTABLISH DEFINITE CAUSE OF A PROBLEM E.G.DOES SMOKING CAUSES CANCER? CORELATION:IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PROBLEM E.G.ARE SMOKING AND CANCER RELATED? GROUP INFERENCES:RANKS-SMALLERGREATER E.G.ARE WOMEN MORE MOTIVATED THAN MEN AT WORK?

RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE
MINIMAL IF STUDY IN NATURAL SETTING E.G.TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS BASED ON DATA MANIPULATION,CONTROL OR SIMULATION:ANALYST CONTROLS VARIABLES E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT

STUDY SETTING
NON CONTRIVED:NATURAL SETTINGFIELD EXPERIMENT E.G ARE THE RATES OF INTEREST RELATED TO EXTENT OF DEPOSITS? CONTRIVED:INDEPENDENT VARIABLE CHANGED TO SEE EFFECT ON DP LAB EXPERIMENT E.G.TO STUDY REL.OF RATE OF INTEREST ON INCLINATION TO SAVE THE RATES OF INTEREST IN VARIOUS BRANCHES ARE CHANGED

UNITS OF ANALYSIS
INDIVIDUALS:E.G.STUDY MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES DYADS:INTERACTION OF SUPERVISOR SUBORDINATE PAIR GROUP:E.G.PATTERN OF MISUSE BY VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS ORGANIZATIONS:EMOLUMENTS OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS UTILITIES CULTURES:E.G.PROFITS MADE BY SUBSIDIARIES OF A CORPORATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

TIME HORIZON
CROSS SECTIONAL:ONE SHOT STUDYONE TIME OR PERIOD E.G DATA STUDY OF STOCK MARKET APRIL-JUNE LONGITUDINAL:STUDY OF INFORMATION AT MORE THAN ONE PERIOD OF TIME E.G.CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR OF EMPLOYEES BEFORE AND AFTER MANAGEMENT CHANGE

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OUTLINE

LAB EXPERIMENT INTERNAL VALIDITY EXTERNAL VALIDITY WHAT AFFECTS INTERNAL VALIDITY ? THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND INTERNAL VALIDITY 61

LAB EXPERIMENT
CAUSAL STUDY OF IV-DV AND COTROL OR ISOLATE CONTAMINATING VARIABLES MANIPULATE-TREAT IV TO SEE EFFECT ON DV E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT CONTROL CONTAMINATING VARIABLE BY MATCHING E.G.SPREADING SUBJECTS EQUALLY ACROSS CONTRL-EXP.GROUPS RANDOMIZATION:RANDOM SELECTION OF SUBJECTS OF GROUPS ALSO CONTROLS CONTAMINATING VARIABLES

INT. AND EXT. VALIDITY

INT.VALIDITY IS THE CONFIDENCE IN CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP IV-DV IT IS HIGH IN LAB EXPERIMENT EXT.VALIDITY IS THE EXTENT THE RESULTS FOUND IN LAB EXP ARE GENERALIZABLE FIELD EXP BEING IN NATURAL SETTING HAS MORE EXT VALIDITY THE HIGHER THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY THE LOWER THE INTERNAL VALIDITY AND VICE VERSA TO ENSURE BOTH FIRST LAB EXP THEN FIELD EXP

FACTORS AFFECTING INT VALIDITY

HISTORY:DURING LAB EXP OTHER FACTORS EFFECT DV E.G PROMOTION BY FIRM AND ASSOCIATION MATURATION:EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. OLDER,TIRED,HUNGER,EXPERI. TESTING:SUBJECT TREATMENT EFFECTS POST TEST BY SENSITIZING INSTRUMENTATION:CHANGE IN FRAME OF MEASUREMENT PRE AND POST TEST E.G.MEASURE DIFFERENT OUT PUTS

FACTORS CONT
SELECTION BIAS:IN SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF EXP-CONTROL GROUPS STATISTICAL REGRESSION:SELECTION OF EXTREME SCORE SUBJECTS E.G.HIGHLY OR LOW MOTIVATED WORKERS MORTALITY:ATTRITION OF GROUP MEMBERS THE ABOVE EFFECTS CAN BE REDUCED BY SOPHISTICATED RESEARCH DESIGN

EXAMPLE
DEMOCRATIC STYLE BEST TO RAISE EMPLOYEE MORALE? 3EXP GRPS FOR PRE TEST AUTOCRATIC,DEMOCRATIC,PARTICIPATI VE AND CONTROL GRP NO TEST TWO MEMBERS MOVE TONOTHER GROUP-HISTORY EFFECT. TWO MEMBERS FROM AUTO G. LEFTMORTALITY EFFECT A POST TEST WAS GIVEN TO ALL-TEST EFFECT

INT VALIDITY AND EXP DESIGNS

SHORTER TIME SPAN REDUCES HISTORY,MATURATION,MORTALITY EFFECTS QUASI EXP DESIGNS: .1 EXP G-PRE AND POST T>TEST EFFECT -E=02-01 NO CONTROL G. .1EXP G-POST T AND 1 CONTROLG.E=02-01 >MATURATION EFFECT

CONT
TRUE EXP DESIGNS: 1EXP,1CONTROL G.PRE.AND POST TEST ,CONTROL G.NO TREATMENT E=[02-01][04-03] >MORTALITY EFFECT SOLOMON 4 GROUP DESIGN: 1 EXP ,1CONTROE G.AS ABOVE 1 EXP G .1CONTROL G.POST TEST,CONTROL G.NO TREATMENT >MORTALITY EFFECT

SIMULATION
ALTERNATIVE TO LAB/FIELD EXP COMPUTER BASED MODEL BUILDING TECHNIQUE CREATES SETTING RESEMBLING NATURAL ONE PARTIPANTS RANDOMELY EXPOSED TO REAL WORLD EXPERIENCE IN SIMULATED ENV MANIPULATION AND CONTROL BY RESEARCHER DATA COLLECTION BY OBSERV.TAPING,INTERVIEW EXPENSIVE, MORTALITY EFFECT

IT IS UNETHICAL TO
TO FORCE SUBJECTS TO PARTICIPATE IN EXP GIVE MENIAL WORK DISALLOW WITHDRAWAL USE RESULTS AGAINST EXPOSE TO HAZARD NOT PRESERVE SECRECY NO DEBRIEFING AFTER EXP WITH HOLD BENEFITS

MANAGERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
IS EXPERIMENT DESIGN REQUIRED? NEED FOR CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP OR CORRELATION ? IS HIGH VALIDITY NEEDED? HOW IMPORTANT IS COST?

SCALES OUTLINE
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION NOMINAL SCALE ORDINAL SCALE INTERVAL SCALE RATIO SCALE 72

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
VARIABLES HAVE TO BE MEASURED IN THEORETICAL FRAMEW TO TEST HYPOTHESIS PHYSICAL MEASURES EASYTEMPERATURE,LENGTH SUBJECTIVE FEELINGS,ATTITUDES,PERCEPTIONS DIFFICULT TO MEASURE AND ARE ABSTRACT CONCEPTSLIKING,HAPPINESS OPERATONALLY DEFINING A CONCEPT IS TO RENDER IT MEASUREABLE

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVAT.
DIMENSIONS-TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS: 1.DRIVEN BY WORK-CONSTANTLY WORKING,RELUCTANT TO TAKE TIME OFF,EFFORT DESPITE SETBAC 2.UNABLE TO RELAX-THINKS OF WORKAT HOME,NO HOBBIES 3.IMPATIENT WITH INEFFECT-DISLIKE MISTAKES,DISLIKE WORK WITH SLOW P. 4.SEEKS MODER.CHALLENGE-OPTS FOR CHALLENG ING JOB 5.SEEKS FEEDB-ASKS FOR,IMPATIENT FOR FEEDBACK

LEARNING EXAMPLE
UNDERSTANDING:ANSWER Qs,GIVE EXAMPLE TO EXPLAIN RETENTION:RECALL MATERIAL SAME TIME APPLICATION:SOLVE PROBLEMS APPLYING CONCEPT,INTEGRATE WITH OTHER RELEVANT MATERIAL MOST CONCEPTS HAVE BEEN MEASURED OPERATIONALLY DEFINED

SCALES
SCALE:A TOOL /MECHANISM TO DISTINGUISH /MEASURE VARIABLE NOMINAL SCALE:ALLOWS TO ASSIGN SUBJECTS TO MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE CATEGORIES E.G.MALEFEMALE,PAKISTANI-AMERICAN TO DISTINGUISH/DIFFERENTIATE ORDINAL SCALE:DISTINGUISHES AND RANKS VARIABLES E.G. BEST TO WORST,FIRSTBTO LAST,RANK JOB CHARACTERICS LIKE INTERACTION,SKILL USE,WHOLE TASK,SERVE OTHERS,INDEPENDENT

SCALES CONT
INTERVAL SCALE:DIFFERENTIATES,RANKS,DISTANC E BET VARIABLES,GROUPS SUBJECTS IN CATEGORIES E.G.THERMOMETER SCALE, PREFERENES ON A 5/7 POINT SCALE STRONG.DISAGREE,DISAGREE,NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE ETC RATIO SCALE:DIFFERENCE ,ORDER,DISTANCE AND UNIQUE ORIGIN E.G. WEIGHING SCALE,USE ARITH OR GEOMETRIC MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION,VARIANCE,,TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE T,F

SCALES CONT
RATIO SCALES USED WHEN EXACT NUMBERS ARE CALLED FOR E.G HOW MANY ORDERS DO YOU OPERATE? INTERVAL SCALE USED FORB RESPOSES TO VARIOUS ITEMS ON 5/7 POINTS USE OF STATS MEASURES AS RATIO SCALE,A.MEAN,STAND.DEVIATION,VARI ANCE,T,F ORDINAL SCALE:FOR PREFERENCE IN USE,STATS MEASURES ARE MEDIAN,RANGE,RANK ORDER CORRELATIONS NOMINAL SCALE:USED FOR PERSONAL DATA,STATS MEASURES,MODE,X2

SCALING OUTLINE
SCALING RATING SCALES RANKING SCALES GOODNESS OF MEASURES RELIABILITY VALIDITY

79

SCALING
ASSIGN NUMBERS OR SYMBOLS TO ELICIT ATTITUDINAL RESPONSES TOWARDS OBJECTS,EVENTS ,PERSONS ETC NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH 4 SCALES RATING SCALES:DICHOTOMY,CATEGORY,LICKER T,NUMERICAL,SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, ITEMISED,FIXED CONSTANT SUM,STAPEL,GRAPHICAL RATING RANKING SCALES:PAIRED COMPARISON,FORCED CHOICE

RATING SCALES
DICHOTOMY S.:YES NO RESPONSE TO A QUESTION.E.G.DO YOU LIKE TO WORK? CATEGORY S.:ELICIT ONE RESPONSE FROM SEVERAL E.G.DO YOU LIVE IN A/B/C/D ? LIKERT S.:E.G.5POINT/STRONGLY AGREESTRONGLY DISAGREE NUMERICAL S.:5 TO 7 POINTS BIPOLAR ADJECTIVE AT EACH ENDE.G.EXTREMELY PLEASED..EXTREMELY DISPLEASED

RATING SCALES CON

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL S.:BIPOLAR ATTRIBUTES AT ENDS E.G.BEAUTIFUL-UGLY ITEMISED RATING S.:5 TO 7 POINTS WITH ANCHOR E.G.VERY UNLIKEYVERY LIKELY

RATING SCALES CONT.

FIXED CONSTANT SUM S.:ASSIGN NUMER TO EACH ITEM FROM POINTS E.G. COLOUR,SHAPE,SIZE STAPEL S.:DIRECTION AND INTENSITY OF ATTITUDE E.G. 3 TO +3 GRAPHIC RATING S.:PLACE MARK ON GRAPHIC SCALE CONSENSUS S.:A PANEL OF JUDGES SELECTS ITEM WHICH MEASURES CONCEPT

RANKING SCALES CONT..

PAIRED COMPARISON S.:RESPONDENTS TO SELECT TWO OBJECTS AT A TIME.RESPONDENTS FATIGUE IF NUMBER LARGE FORCED CHOICE S.:RANK OBJECTS RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER TO ASSESS ATTITUDES TOWARDS OBJECTS E.G.FINANCIAL ENVITONMENT MOST USEFUL ..LEAST USEFUL

GOODNESS OF MEASURES
VALIDITY: RIGHT MEASURE FOR THE CONCEPT[IN EXP DESIGN EXACT CAUSE EFFECT REL/GENERALIZ.] RELIABILITY:ACCURACY TO MEASURE THE CONCEPT .TO BE STABLE AND CONSISTANT STABILITY:MEASURES THE CONCEPT EVEN IF CHANGE OCCURS CONSISTANCY:ITEMS IN THE INSTRUMENT SOLICT SIMILAR IMPACT ON RESPONDENTS

ITEMS ANALYSIS
TO SEE IF ITEMS BELONG IN THE INSTRUMENT THE MEANS BETWEEN HIGH SCORE S AND LOW SCORES ITEMS GROUP ARE TESTED BY t VALUES TO FIND HIHLY DISCRIMINATING ITEMS TO BE INCLUDED IN THE INSTRUMENT THE VALIDITY OF MEASURES IS ESTIMATED

RELIABILITY/STABILITY
TEST RETEST RELIABILITY:REPEAT INSTRUMENT WITH SAME GROUP AND ANOTHER TIME.CORRELATION PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY:RESPONSES OF TWO COMPARABLE SETS OF MEASURES FOR SAME CONCEPT.HIGHLY CORRELATED

RELIABILITY/CONSISTAN.
INTERNAL CONSISTANCY:ITEMS AS A SET MEASURE THE SAME CONSTRUCT RELIABLY CONSISTANCY TEST:RESPONDENTS ANSWERS TO ALL ITEMS ARE CORRELATED CRONBACH A COEFF SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY:CORRELATION OF ITEMS OF BOTH HALVES OF INSTRUMENT AFTER SPLIT

VALIDITY
INSTRUMENT MEASURES THE INTENDED CONCEPT CONTENT V.:ENSURES THAT MEASURES INCLUDE REPRESENTATIVE,ADEQUATE SET OF ITEMSFOR CONCEPT APPROVED BY PANEL OF JUDGES FACE VALIDITY:DO THE ITEMS MEASURE THE CONCEPT ON THE FACE OF IT[LOOK LIKE]

VALIDITY CON
CRITERION V.:THE MEASURE DIFFERENTIATES INDIVIDUALS ON A CRITERION.CORRELATION PREDICTIVE V:DIFFERENTIATES A FUTURE RELATED CRITERIONE.G.APTITUDE TEST FOR JOB/SUBJECT CONCURRENT V.:DISCRIMINATES INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENTE.G.SCORE FOR WORK ETHICS FOR A HARD WORKER

VALIDITY CONT..
CONSTRUCT V.:DOES THE MEASURE FIT THE CONCEPT AS THEORIZED BY FACTOR ANALYSIS? CONVERGENT V.:DO 2 INSTRUMENTS MEASURING THE CONCEPT CORRELATE HIGHLY? DISCRIMINATING V.:DOES THE MEASURE HAVE A LOW CORRELATION WITH THE VARIABLE THAT IS SUPPOSED TO BE UNRELATED TO THE VARIABLE?

EXAMPLES TESTED INSTRUMENTS

JOB ENRICHMENT,PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT,ROLE CONFLICT,CAREER SALIEN,LEAST PREFFERED COWORKER,PRODUCTIVITY AUDIT,ADS,SELLING,MARKETING AND QUALITY SERVICE RESPONSES,RELIABILITY RESPOSIVENESS,TANGIBLE PERSONAL ATTITUDES ETC

DATA COLLECT.METHODS OUTLINE

INTERVIEW METHODS QUESTIONNAIRE METHODS OBSERVATION SURVEYS SETTING SOURCES

93

INTERVIEW METHODS
UNSTRUCTURED:PRELIMINARY,TO IDENTIFY CRITICAL FACTORS SEQUENCE OF Qs NOT PLANNED FROM BROAD TO SPECIFIC Qs STRUCTURED:TO ELICIT INDEPTH,DIRECT INFORMATION TYPE OF INFO NEEDED IS KNOWN PREDTERMINED Qs LISTED /POSED VISUAL AIDS USED

BIAS FREE INTERVIEW

INTERVIEWER RAPPORT WITH RESPONDENT NOT TO INFLUENCE RESP. BY BODY LANGUAGE RECORD RESPONSES ACCURATELY CORRECT ANALYSIS,INTERPRET. TACTFUL QUESTIONING REPEAT AND CLARIFY Qs CONFIDENCE BY CREDIBILITY/ABILITY ALLEY FEARS AND SUSPICION

BIAS FREE CONT..

INTERVIEWEE TO UNDERSTAND Qs EXPRESSES TRUE OPINION AVOIDS PERSONAL LIKING/DISLIK. AVOID PRESENCE OF NON PARTICIPANTS WHO RESTRICT RAPPORT FOR OPENNESS ENSURE AVAILABILITY FLEXIBILITY BY APPOINTMENT

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
FUNNELING:START WITH OPEN ENDED Qs,FROM BROAD TO SPECIF.Qs TO IDENTIFY KEY ISSUES UNBIASED:ASK Qs IN A WAY OF LEAST BIAS IN RESPONSE CLARIFY ISSUES:REPHRASE IMPORTANT INFO OF RESPONDENT HELP RESP.UNDERS.ISSUES:Qs IN A SIMPLE WAY TAKE NOTES DIRECTLY /THEREAFTER

INTERV.METHODS +/ FACE TO FACE:ADAPT THE Qs,CLARIFY DOUBTS,OBSERVE NON VERBAL CUES,MAY BE EXPENSIVE,NEED TRAINED STAFF TELEPHONIC:REACH RESPONDENT FAST,DISCOMFORT OF FACING AVOIDED,ABRUPT TERMINATION COMPUTER ASSISTED:INDEXES RESPONSES,FILTERS OUT OF RANGE RESPOSES TO ENHANCE ACCURACY,SELECTS RESPONDENTS AND CALLS FROM FILES,RECORDS RESPONSES

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
SET OF Qs FOR RESPONSE PERSONALLYADMINISTERED: QUICK,LESS COST LOCALLY,DOUBTS CLARIFIED,NEED LESS TRAINED STAFF, MAIL QUESTIONNAIR:FOR WIDE AREA COVERAGE,LOW RESPONSE[30 %] , PROVIDE MONETARY AND OTHER INCENTIVES TO RESPOND,FACILITATE BY ENCLOSING SELF ADDRESSED STAMPED ENVELOPE ,KEEP Qs SIMPLE TO ANSWER

Q.DESIGN WORDING
CONTENT/PURPOSE:TAP DIMENSIONS AND ELEMENTS OF CONCEPT BY BEHAVIOURAL Qs LANGUAGE/WORDING:ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING OF RESPONDENTS OPEN ENDEDQs:RESP.CHOOSES WAY TO DECIDE CLOSED Qs:CHOICE FROM GIVEN ALTERNATIVES POSITIV.AND NEGATIV.WORDED Qs:NOT TO BE USED FOR SAME CONCEPT TOGATHER,USE TO AVOID MECHAN.RESP.

BIAS IN Qs
DOUBLE BARRELED:WHERE TWO PARTS LEND TO DIFFERENT ANSWERS.E.G.GOOD MARKET SELLS WELL AMBIGUOUS:RESPONDEND MAY NOT BE SURE OF MEANING RECALL:RECALL PAST EVENT HAZY LEADING:TO PHRASE A Q.TO ELICIT RESPONSE OF RESEARCHER LIKING E.G.EMPLOYEE TO GET RAISE IN INFLTIONARY SITUATION

BIAS IN Qs CONT..
LOADED:MAY SOLICIT EMOTIONALLY CHARGED RESPONSE E.G.WILL IT BE VINDICTIVE IF UNION DECIDES TO STRIKE SOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE:E.G.DO YOU THINK OLDER PEOPLE BE LAID OFF? LENGHTY:NOT OVER 2O WORDS SEQUENCE:FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH

CORRECT ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES BY MULTINATIONALS TRANSLATION OF INSTRUMENT ITEMS:BACK TRANSLATION TO ESTABLISH IDIOMATIC EQUIVALENCES PROCEDURES:UNIFORM PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLATION ALSO WITHIN A TIME FRAME

PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
WORDING TO MINIMISE BIAS MEASURES TO BE RELIABLE AND VALID SCALES AND SCALING APPROPRIATE ESTABLISH GOODNESS OF DATA EASY CODING AND CATEGORIZATION OF DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE GETUP
LOGICALLY ORGANIZED SECTIONS NEATLY PLACED INSTRUCTIONS FOR RESPONDENTS MINIMUM AMOUNT OF EFFORT BY RESPONDENT PRE TESTING OF Qs NO AMBIGUITY EXAMPLES PERSONAL DATA,INCOME,ENDING ETC

ELECTRONIC Q.DESIGN SURVEY

CHECKS LOGICAL/SYMMETRICAL ERROR DATA EDITING PROGRAMMES COMPUTING AND MEASURES MULTIPLE REGRESSION ON LINE Q.SURVEY,MAIL DATA DISC TO RESPONDENTS

OBSERVATION SURVEY
OBSERVE BEHAVIOUR,ACTIVITIES,BODY LANGUAGE,PROCESSES,CHILDREN UNSTRUCTURED:NO SPESIFIC IDEA OF ASPECT TO BE STUDIED-NATURAL STRUCTURED:PREDTERMINED EVENTS OBSERVED,RECORDED AS NEEDED LESS RESP.BIAS,EASY TO OBSERVE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS,CHILDREN NEED PRESENCE,SLOW,EXPENSIVE,DOES NOT OBSERVE COGNITIVE EFFECT,NEED TO TRAIN OBSERVERS

BEHAVIOURAL OBSERV.
NON VERBAL:BODY MOVEMENT , GLANCES,FACE EXPRESSION LINGUISTIC:SOUNDS EXTRA LINGUISTIC:VOICE,PITCH;RATE OF SPEAKING SPATIAL :HOW ONE RELATES PHYSICALLY TO OTHERS NON BEHAVIOURAL:RECORD ANALYSIS,PHYSICAL PROCESSES,CONDITIONS

BIASES IN OBSERVATION
ERRORS IN RECORDING , MEMORY LAPSES,BOREDOM,FATIGUES RESPONDENT REACTIONS LACK OF TRAINING:WHAT TO OBSERVE[EVENT,TARGET],HOW AND WHEN USE OF CAMERAS,RECORDING ETC CONCEALMENT OF OBSERVER ,EQUIPMENT AND PURPOSE UNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATION,AVOID HALLO EFFECT,OBSERVER DRIFT

FURTHER METHODS/SOURCES
WORD ASSOCIATION:E.G.WORK IS THEMATIC TEST:STORY AROUND A PICTURE INKBLOT TEST:INTERPRETATION MULTI METHODS USE FOCUS GROUP:GROUP DISCUSSION UNDER MODERATOR-RESPONSES PANEL:FOCUS GROUP TO STUDY INTERVENTION EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. EFFECT OF ADS TRACE MEASURES:E.G .CANS IN TRASH FOR BRAND USE

SAMPLING OUTLINE
DEFINITION WHY SAMPLING? NORMAL DISTRIBUTION SAMPLING DESIGN PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBAB.SAMPLING PRECISION AND CONFIDENCE CALCULTION OF SAMPLE SIZE

111

DEFINITIONS
POPULATION:GROUP,EVENTS TO BE INVESTIGATED ELEMENT:A MEMBER OF POPULATION POPULATION FRAME:LIST OF ELEMENTS E.G.TEL.DIRECTORY SAMPLE:RESEARCHER DRAWS SUBSETOF POPULATION TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM IT FOR WHOLE POPULATION SUBJECT:AN ELEMENT OF A SAMPLE

DEFINITIONS CON
SAMPLING :PROCESS OF DRAWING A SAMPLE FROM A POPULATION TO UNDERSTAND,ANALYSE ITS PROPERTIES TO GENERALIZE FOR THE WHOLE POPULATION SAMPLING R EDUCES EFFORT AND COST IF POPULATION IS LARGE REPRESENTATIVE S.:IN A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE THE SAME AS THOSE OF THE POPULATION

SAMPLING DESIGN
EXPLORATORY DESIGN: REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS NOT NEEDED-RESULTS NOT GENERALIZED, FOR CLUES TO ISSUES FOR DESIGN OF SAMPLE ONE NEEDS TARGET POPULATION,PARAMETER TO STUDY,SAMPLING FRAME,SAMPLE SIZE,TIME AND RESOURCES REQUIRED

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
ELEMENTS HAVE SAME CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED,USED WHEN REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS IMPORTANT UNRESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPL.:EACH ELEMENT HAS KNOWN AND EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED LEAST BIAS AND MOST GENERALIZABLE. EXPENSIVE AND CUMBERSOME

RESTRICTED PROBAB.S.
SYSTEMATIC:DRAW Nth ITEM RANDOMLY ,EFFICIENT AND USED FOR ATTITUDE SURVEYS ETC. STRATIFIED RANDOM:HOMOGENITY WITHIN GROUP,HETROGENITY AMONG GROUPS,SELECT SUBJECTS AT RANDOM EACH SUBGROUP IF SUBGROUPS WITHIN POPULATION HAVE DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

PROBABILITY S. CONT
PROPRTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM:PROP.SELECTION FROM EACH GROUP E.G .JOB LEVELS DISPROPORTIONATE STRAT.RANDOM:IF STRATA TOO SMALL OR TOO LARGE AND MORE PROB.SUSPECTED WITHIN SUB GROUPS CLUSTER:GROUPS HETROGENOUS WITHIN AND HOMOGENOUS AMONG THEM ,LESS EFFICIENT MULTISTAGE CLUSTER:CLUSTER IN EACH AREA AND SUB CLUSTERS AND RANDOM SELECTION

PROBA.SAMPLING CON..
AREA SAMPLING:POPULATION WITH IN EACH GEOGRAPHICAL CLUSTER,LESS COSTLY DOUBLE SAMPLING:1st SAMPLE FOR PRELEMINARY INFORMATION OF INTEREST,2nd TIME PREVIOUS SAMPLE USED FOR FURTHER DETAIL

NON PROBAB. SAMPLING

ELEMETS PROBABILITY OF SELECTION NOT KNOWN,FOR QUICK PREL.FINDINGS CONVENIENCE :EASILY AVAILABLE SAMPLE ELEMENTS TAKEN PURPOSIVE:CONFINED TO SPECIFIC GROUP WHO CAN PROVIDE DESIRED INFORMATION JUDGEMENT:BEST PEOPLE TO PROVIDE INFO QUOTA:ENSURE CERTAIN PEOPLE ARE REPRESENTED IN A STUDY BY QUOTA

PRECIS. AND CONFIDENCE

PRECISION:HOW CLOSE ESTIMATE IS TO TRUE POPULATION STATS STANDARD SAMPLING ERROROF MEANS=Sx=S/SQUARE ROOT[n-1] CONFIDENCE:LEVEL OF CERTAINTY TO HAVE THAT PRECISION E.G 95% FOR k=1.96 Sx=10/(49^1/2)=1.43 U=X+kSx=105+-1.96*1.43=1o5+-2.35 BY LAERGER n MULTIPLY BY [N-n]/N-1 LARGER THE SAMPLE SIZE HIGHER THE PRECISION OR SMALLER THE SAMPLING ERROR.THE NARROWER PRECISION RANGE THE LOWER THE CONFIDENCE LEVEL

PRECISION AND CONFID

NO SAMPLE HAS EXACTLY SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS POPULATION PROBABILITY SAMPLING COMES CLOSER TO POPULATION STATISTICS X,S,S^2 MEAN,STANDARD DEV., VARIANCE OF SAMPLE U,SIGMA,SIGMA^2 OF POPULATION n SAMPLE SIZE,N POPULATION

SAMPLE SIZE
EFFECTED BY VARIABILITY OF POPULATION PRECISION/ACCURACY NEEDED COST /BENEFIT OF INVESTIGATION MOST RESEARCH SAMPLES SIZE>30AND <500 FOR SUBSAMPLES 3O IN EACH CATEGORY FOR MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS SAMPLE SIZE 10 TIMES NUMBER OF VARIABLES EXPERI.RESEARCH SAMPLE SIZE 10-20

OUTLINE D ATA ANALYSIS/INTERPRET

DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS: EDIT,CODING,CATEGORIZATION,DATA ENTRY DATA ANALYSIS: OBJECTIVES OF DATA ANALYSIS:TEST GOODNESS,HYPOTHESIS TEST, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS,INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 123

DATA READY.
EDIT:CHECK INCOMPLETENESS AND INCONSISTANCY,LOGICALLY RECTIFY DATA BLANK RESPONSES:LACK OF UNDERSTANDING,UNWILLINGNESS TO ANSWER,INDIFFERENCE TAKE MID POINT OF SCALE IGNORE BLANK RESPONSES ASSIGN MEAN VALUE OF RESPONSES ASSIGN RANDOM NUMBER IN SCALE

DATA CONT.
CODING:ASSIGN UNIQUE NUMBERTO EACH VARIABLE AND ITEM E.G AGE,EDUCATION CHECK 10% FOR ACCURACY CATEGORIZATION:VARIABLES SUCH THAT SEVERAL ITEMS MEASURING SAME CONCEPT ARE GROUPED TOGETGER.E.G. VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF AGE ENTRY:BY SCANNER DIRECTLY OR MANUALLY USING STATS PACKAGE DATA EDITOR

DATA ANALYSIS
USE STATS PACKAGE SS-9 FOR WINDOWS FOR TESTS,EXCEL FOR DISPLAY RESULTS FEEL FOR DATA:MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,DISPERSION,DISTRIBUTION, INTERRELATIONS OF VARIABLES TO DETECT INCORRECTNESS ,BIAS,OUT OF RANGE DATA GOODNESS OF DATA:RELIABILITY ANALYSIS CRONBACH ALPHA COEFF. CLOSER TO 1 THE HIGHER INTERNAL CONSISTANCY RELIABILITY OF ITEMS OF MEASURES

DATA ANALYSIS CONT

SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY COEFF.FOR CORRELATION OF SPLIT ITEMS STABILITY OF MEASURES:PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY,TEST RETEST RELIABILITY TEST FOR CORRELATION OF MEASURES VALIDITY:FACTORIAL VALIDITY BY MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES TO CONFIRM CORRECTNESS OF DIMENSIONS OF CONCEPTS CRITERION VALIDITY:TEST MEASURES TO DIFFERENTIATE INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENT

DATA ANALYSIS CONT

CONVERGENT V.:TWO SOURCES RESPONDING TO SAME MEASURES HIGHLY CORRELATED DISCRIMINATORY V:TWO DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT CONCEPTS ARE NOT CORRELATED IF VALIDATED MEASURES ARE USED NO NEED FOR VALIDITY TEST ONLY TEST RELIABILITY

HOYPOTHESIS TESTING EXAMPLE

EXAMINE CRONBACH ALPHA FOR MEASURES FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIABLES DESCRIBE MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION OF MEASURES PEARSONS CORREL.COEFFICIENT RESULTS OF HYPOTHESES

EXAMPLE CONT
RELIABILITY:CRONBACH ALPHA 0.82, MEASURES INTERNALLY CONSISTANT, CORRELATED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONAL DATA E.G.DEPT WISE % RESPONDENTS DESCRIPTIVE STATS MAX,MIN,MEAN,STD DEV.,VARIANCE OF VARIABLES E.G JOB SAT AVERAGE,ITL LOW, INFERENTIAL STATS:PEARSON CORRELATION,BELOW 0.59 MEASURES VALIDITY-IF>0,75 VARIABLES NOT DISTINCT

EXAMPLE CONT
E.G. ITL IS NEGATIVELY CORREL TO JOB SAT,EQUITY,JOB ENRICH HYPOTHESIS TEST 1:NO DIFFERENCE BET.MEN AND WOMEN IN PERCEIVED EQUITY Ho:Uw=Um t-Test TCAL=0.75<T DF=171,SIG.0.05 T=1.96 H0 ACCEPTED HYPOTHESIS 2:JOB SATISFACTION IRRESPETIVE OF SHIFTS1,2,3 H0:U1=U2=U3 INTERVAL SCALE ANOVA T.

EXAMPLE CON
FCAL=3.327FCRIT=3 H REJECTED,SIG=0.04 D=3-1=2,DF=171-12-4=159 HYPOTHESIS 3:NO DIFFERENCE IN ITL OF EMPLOYEES AT 5 JOB LEVELS H0:U1=U2=U3=U4=U5ANOVA TESTfcal1.25<fcrit2.37 H0 ACCEPTED p=.03 k=51,171-4=167 HYPOTHESIS 4:SHIFTS WORKED AND EMPLOYEE STATUS CHI SQUARE TEST SINCE NOMINAL VARIABLE X^2=2.16 <2.7 H0accepted df=2,sig.0.25

EXAMPLE CONT.
HYPOTHESIS 5:4 VARIABLES DO NOT SIGNIFICANTLY EXPLAIN VARIANCE IN ITL-MULTIPLE CORREL ANALYSIS R CORREL.OF VARIABLES 0.58,R^2=0.3 VARIANCE SIG..001,DF4=5-1,DF156=160-4 F=2.4 FCAL=16.7>FCRIT HO REJECTED

HELP IN CHOICE OF TEST

THE TYPE OF TEST DEPENDS ON HYPOTHESIS,SCALE,COST AND BENEFIT EXPERT SYSTEMS HELP CHOOSE APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE AND TESTS E.G.STAT NAVIGATOR, THEY ALSO HELP IN RESEARCH DESIGN

RESEARCH PROPOSAL OUTLINE

PURPOSE SPONSOR USES RESEARCH BENEFITS TYPES OF PRPOSALS STRUCTURING PROPOSALS PROBLEM STATEMENT RESEARCH OBJECTIVES LITERATURE REVIEW BENEFITS OF STYDY RESEARCH DESIGN D ATA ANALYSIS

135

PROPOSAL OUTLINE..
NATURE/FORM OF RESULTS QUALIFICATION OF RESEARCHER BUDGET SCHEDULE FACILITIES/SPECIAL RESOURCES PROJECT MANAGEMENT BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

PURPOSE OF PROPOSAL
THE PROPOSAL INDICATES: SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM RELATED RESEARCH OF OTHERS DATA NEEDED,METHODS OF COLLECT.,ANALYSIS,INTERPRET. PURPOSE,DESIGN AND FITNESS TO RESAERCH BASIS TO EVALUATE RESULTS WORKPLAN ,TIME AND BUDGET ESTIMATES

TYPES OF PROPOSALSCOMPLEXITY
STUDENT TERM PAPER,THESIS,DOCTORAL THESIS INTERNAL EXPLORATION,SMALL SCALE OR LARGE SCALE STUDY EXTERNAL EXPLORATORY,SMALL TO LARGE SCALE CONTRACT GOVT SPONSORED STUDY NEEDS ALL MODULES DOCTORAL THESIS DOES NOT NEED SUMMARY,RES.QUALIFICATIONS, BUDGET,PROJECT MANAGEMENT,

STRUCTURE OF PROPOSAL
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:INFO ABSTRACT FOR EXECUTIVE EVALUATION STATING PROBLEM,OBJECTIVES,BENEFITS OF RESAERCH APPROACH PROBLEM STATEMENT:STATE PROBLEM, BACKGROUND,CONSEQUENCES, IMPORTANCE,BENEFITS OF STUDY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:PURPOSE OF RESAERCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS SPONSOR SPECIFIC CONCRETE AND ACHIEVABLE GOALS LISTED IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

STRUCTURE CON
LIT.REVIEW:HISTORICALLY SIGNIFICANT,RECENT,RELATED RESEARCH,DATA,REPORTS AS BASIS OF PROPOSED STUDY,DISCUSS IMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF STUDY:A FEW PARAS HOW STUDY WOULD BENEFIT THE SPONSOR RESEARCH DESIGN:TECHNICAL DETAILS OF PHASES OF THE PROJECT,SAMPLE SELECTION,DATA COLL.METHODS,INSTRUMENTS, ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

STRUCTURE CON
DATA ANALYSIS:FOR COMPLEX RESEARCH STUDIES -METHODS/TESTS NATURE/FORM RESULTS:TO SEE IF OBJECTIVE OF STUDY,CONTRACTUAL STATEMENT ACHIEVED, CONCLUSIONS, ACTION PLANS,PLANS,MODELS RESEARCHER QUALIFICATIONS: ACACDEMIC,RELEVANT EXPER. ENTIRE RESUME IF SPCIFICALLY ASKED BUDGET:1-2 PAGES SUB HEADINGS NEED. SCHEDULE:MAJOR PHASES,DURATION, MILESTONES,COMPLETION-PERT PLAN.

STRUCTURE CON
PROJECT MANAGEMENT:TEAM ORG RESPONSIBILITIES,CONTROL PROCEDURES,REPORTING ,COMPETENCY BIBLIOGRAPHY:STANDARD FORMAT RESEARCH AND QUOTATIONS APPENDICES:GLOSSARY,SAMPLE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT EVALUATION:CRITERIA ESTABLISHED BEFORE PROPOSAL RECEIVED,NEATLY PRESENTED,LOGICALLY ORGANIZED,GUIDELINES FOR BUDGET,SCHEDULE,EASILY UNDERSTOOD PROBLEM STATEMENT

STATISTICS OUT LINE

DESCRIPTIVE STATS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY MEASURES OF DISPERSION INFERENTIAL STATS CORRELATION ANALYSIS REGRESSION ANALYSIS TESTS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES 143 TEST OF SIGNIFICANT MEAN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS

DESCRIPTIVE STATS
CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,DISPERSION,SHAPE DESCRIBE DISTRIBUTIONS DISTRIBUTION:THE VALUES ALONGWITH FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:MOST PHENOMENA TEND TO CLUSTER AROUND MEAN-INVERTED BELL SHAPED CURVE MEAN:ARITHMATIC AVERAGE-FOR INTERVAL AND RATIO DATA MEDIAN:MIDPOINT OF A DISTRIBUTION ORDINAL DATA

DESCRIPTIVE CONT
MODE:MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING VALUE-NOMINAL DATA VARIANCE:AVERAGE OF SQUARED DEVIATION SCORES FROM DISTRIBUTIONS MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION:SQUARE ROOT OF VARIANCE RANGE:DIFFERENCE BET.LARGEST AND SMALLEST SCORE IN A DISTRIBUTIONORDINAL DATA INTER QUARTILE RANGE DIFF BETW.FIRST AND THIRD QUARTILE OF DITRIBUTION-ORDINAL DATA

STATISTICAL TESTS
PROCEDURE: STATE NULL HYPOTHESIS CHOOSE THE STATS TEST:DEPENDS ON EFFICIENCY,POPULATION,SAMPLE DRAW,SCALE SELECT LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE:0.0010.1-WITHIN RANGE COMPUTE THE CALCULATED DIFFERENCE VALUE:APPROPRIATE SIGNIFICANCE TEST E.G. t TEST,CHI SQUARE TEST ETC.

STATISTICAL CON
OBTAIN THE CRITICAL VALUE FROM TABLES FOR REGION OF REJECTION/ACCEPTANCE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS MAKE THE DECISION:FOR MOST TESTS IF CALCULATED VALUE IS LARGER THAN CRITICAL VALUE WE REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS

STATIST.TESTS CONT..
STAT.TEST SIGNIFICANCE OF CHANGE/DIFFERENCE IF DIFF DOES NOT REPRESENT SAMPLING FLUCTUATION ONLY NON PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR NOMINAL AND ORDINAL DATA-CHI SQUARE PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR INTERVAL/RATIO SCALES AND RELIABLE ,INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS, POPULATION NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, EQUAL VARIANCES OF POPULATION

INFERENTIAL STATS
TO KNOW FROM ANALYSIS THE RELATIONSHIP BETW.VARIABLES, DIFFERENCE AMONG VARIABLES FROM SUBGROUPS,HOW SEVERAL IVs MIGHT EXPLAIN THE VARIANCE IN A DV MEASURING DEGREE OF RELATIOSHIP BETWEEN 2 VARIABLES IS CORRELATION ANALYSIS USING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A KNOWN VARIABLE AND AN UNKNOWN VARIABLE TO ESTIMATE THE UNKNOWN IS REGRESSION ANALYSIS

PEARSON PROD.CORRELATION
SHOWS DIRECTION,STRENGHT,SIGNIFICANC E OF REL. OF 2 VARIABLES +1 TO 1,SIGNIFICANCE 0.001-0.1 r= SUM [X-x][Y-y]/[N-1].Sx.Sy FOR SMALL SAMPLES SAMPLING ERROR BELOW r=0.5

T-TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
WHEATHER r IS CHANCE DEVIATION FROM A POPULATION FOR INDEPEND.SAMPLE,NORMAL DISTRIBUTION,BIVARIATE Ho:P=0 NO CORRELATION t=r/square root[1-r^2]/n-2=0.93/10.86/8^1/2=7.03 CRITICAL VALUE df 2 and p=0.005 CALCULATED VALUE>2*CRIT.VALUE,NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

CHI SQUARE TEST

USED TO FIND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOMINAL VARIABLES BY SMALL SAMPLE SIZE CHI SQUARE=SUM[O-E]^2/E. O=OBSERVED E=ESTIMATED VALUE E.G 4 RETIRE.PLANS [P]INDEPENDENT OF 3CLASSES OF EMPLOYEES df=[4-1][3-1]=6 CALCULATED VALUE28.08>CRITICAL VALUE 12.593 NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

LINEAR REGRESSION PHI T.

CHI SQUARE BASED BIVARIATE T. WHEN OBSERVED VALUES OF X TAKEN TO ESTIMATE CORRESPON. Y VALUES IT IS SIMPLE REGRESSION BY MORE THAN ONE VARIABLES IT WOULD BE MULTIPLE REGRESSION. E.G. CORRELATION OF JOB ACCIDENT AND SMOKING PHI=SQUARE ROOT CHI SQUARE/N=SQUARE ROOT 6.11257/60=0.305 MODERATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
WHEN 2 OR MORE POPULATION MEANS HYPOTHESIS IS TESTED FOR ANOVA ,WHEATHER TWO DIFFERENT SAMPLE MEANS COME FROM THE SAME POPULATION F DISTRIBUTION VARIES WITH df ACCOUNT FOR ENUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR. E.G RECOVERY DAYS NOT INFLUENCED BY 3 TYPES TREATMENTS IN 4 HOSPITALS:COMP.VAL.TREATM. O.99<3.98,FOR HOSPITALS O.63<3.54 ACCEPT Ho

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
FOR COMPLETE BUSINESS PROBLEMS MULTIPLE IV AND DV E.G.BUYER PREFERENCES/PRODUCT OPTIONS USE MANOVA,MULTIPLE REGRESS.OR DISCRIMINATORY TECHNIQUES FOR INTERDEPENDENT VARIABLES USE :FACTOR ANALYSIS,CLUSTER ANALYSIS,MULTIDIMENSION SCALING FOR METRIC DATA USE SCALES :INTERVAL AND RATIO FOR NONMETRIC DATA USE NOMINAL AND ORDINAL SCALES

MULTPLE REGRESSION
FOR DESCRIPTION,HYPOTHESIS TEST AND FOR ESTIMATING Y=Bo+B1.X1+B2.X2+Bn+Xn WHERE Bs ARE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS E.G.HAS ANN FAMILY INCOME X1,FAMILY SIZE X2,FAMILY LOCATION X3INFLUENCE ON ANN FAMILY FOOD SPENDING Y IF B1=0.6 B2=0.2 X1 HAS 3TIMES INFLUENCE ON Y THAN X2

DISCRIMANT ANALYSIS
FIND PREDICTORS FOR BEST ANALYSIS OF SUBSETS JOINS NOMINAL DV WITH I OR MORE INTERRVAL/RATIO SCALED VARIABLES Di=do+d1.x1+d2.x2+.dp.xp e.g.ADMINISTRATOR SUCCESSFUL OR NOT[Di],ability to work with others[x1],motivation for administration[x2],professional skill[x3] Di=o+0.6 x1+0.45x2+0.3x3 x1 is more important than x2,x3 MANOVA USED TO DIFFERENTIATE RELATIONOF 2 OR MORE DV AND FACTORS

INTERDEPENDENT TECH.
FACTOR ANALYSIS:REDUCE MANY FACTORS TO MANAGEABLE WITH OVERLAPPING CHARACTERISTICS REPLACE DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIPS TO MATRIX OF INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS TRANSFORM SET OF VARIABLES TO NEW SET VARIABLES,NOT CORRELATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SECOND COMPONENT AND LINEAR COMBINATION TILL 100% VARIANCE IS ACCOUNTED FOR