PSYHOLOGY SOCIAL

ASSIGNMENT TOPIC:

Discrimination, Prejudice and Stereotype

PREPARED TO:
PM DR. AZIZI YAHAYA
PREPARED BY:
NOR ANISA BT MUSA (MP071201)
DATE:
26TH March 2009

Content:

1. Discrimination ………………………………………………………. 1

2. Prejudice ………………………………………………………. 7

3. Stereotype ………………………………………………………. 14

4. Summary ………………………………………………………. 19

Reference ………………………………………………………. 20

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 Discrimination, Prejudice and Stereotype

1. Discrimination
Discrimination toward or against a person or group is the treatment or
consideration based on class or category rather than individual merit. It is usually
associated with prejudice. It can be behavior promoting a certain group (e.g. affirmative
action), or it can be negative behavior directed against a certain group (e.g. redlining).

Discrimination is a behavior (an action), particularly with reference to unequal treatment of

people because they are of a particular group whether it be racial, ethnic, religious, or
gender.

1.2 Personal / Individual Discrimination

Farley (2000:16) contends that individual discrimination can refer to any act that
leads to the unequal treatment because of race or ethnicity that is directed at a specific
individual.

Examples:

• a home owner refusing to sell to a Jew

• a taxi driver refusing to pick up African American fares
• an employer paying Chicano workers a lower wage than white workers.

1.3 Legal

Robertson (1989:204) contends that legal discrimination is "unequal treatment, on

the grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law."

1.4 Institutional Discrimination

Deliberate racial discrimination in virtually every form has been illegal for years.
None-the-less discrimination is still prevalent in our society. Discrimination can occur
within institutions in society.

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 Institutional discrimination is unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social
institutions. It refers to those practices in social institutions that favor one group over
another.

Examples of Institutional Discrimination

1.4.1 Deliberate Institutional Discrimination

Institutional discrimination can be legal and deliberate like the legally required
school segregation that existed in the South prior to the 1960s.

1.4.2 Unintentional Institutional Discrimination

Some times institutional discrimination develops without any conscious racist

intent. An example would be today's high cost of college tuition. Since people of color are
typically poorer than whites, high tuition costs are institutionally discriminatory toward
people of color (Farley, 2000:16).

Legal discrimination is, after all, illegal. Presumably, if one can document legal
discrimination, one can remove such discrimination through the courts or legislatures.

Institutional discrimination, on the other hand, is much more insidious and,

therefore, more difficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the fabric of
society. Harrington (1984) poetically called institutional discrimination "structures of
misery."

Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:174) describe institutional discrimination as "the

customary ways of doing things, prevailing attitudes and expectations, and accepted
structural arrangements [that] works to the disadvantage [of the poor]." Institutional
discrimination explains much inequality in gender (and race and ethnicity) found in the
workplace.

1.5 Direct vs. subtle

Unlawful discrimination will can be characterized as direct or subtle. Direct

discrimination involves treating someone less favorably because of their possession of an
attribute (e.g., sex, age, race, religion, family status, national origin, military status, sexual
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orientation, disability, body size/shape), compared with someone without that attribute in
the same circumstances.

Subtle discrimination involves setting a condition or requirement which a smaller

proportion of those with the attribute are able to comply with, without reasonable
justification. The U.S. case of Griggs v. Duke Power Company provides an example of
indirect discrimination, where an aptitude test used in job applications was found "to
disqualify Negroes at a substantially higher rate than white applicants". Kirton (2004)

1.6 Racial discrimination

Though the term racism usually denotes race-based prejudice, violence,
discrimination, or oppression, the term can also have varying and hotly contested
definitions. Racialism is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative
meanings. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, racism is a belief or ideology that
all members of each racial group possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race,
especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another racial group or
racial groups. The Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines racism as a belief that race is the
primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an
inherent superiority of a particular racial group, and that it is also the prejudice based on
such a belief. The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: "the belief that human races
have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving
the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."
Racial discrimination is treating people differently through a process of social
division into categories not necessarily related to race. Racial segregation policies may
officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including
Dean Karlan and Marianne Bertrand, at the MIT and the University of Chicago found in a
2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job
applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were
50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive
callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of
unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (i.e. Jim
Crow laws, etc.)

1.7 Age discrimination

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 Age discrimination is or group on the grounds of age. Although theoretically the
word can refer to the discrimination against any age group, age discrimination usually
comes in one of three forms: discrimination against youth (also called adultism),
discrimination against those 40 years old or older, and discrimination against elderly
people.

In the United States, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act prohibits

employment discrimination nationwide based on age with respect to employees 40 years of
age or older. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act also addresses the difficulty older
workers face in obtaining new employment after being displaced from their jobs, arbitrary
age limits.

In many countries, companies more or less openly refuse to hire people above a
certain age despite the increasing lifespans and average age of the population. The reasons
for this range from vague feelings that younger people are more "dynamic" and create a
positive image for the company, to more concrete concerns about regulations granting older
employees higher salaries or other benefits without these expenses being fully justified by
an older employees' greater experience.

Some people consider that teenagers and youth (around 15-25 years old) are victims
of adultism, age discrimination framed as a paternalistic form of protection. In seeking
social justice, they feel that it is necessary to remove the use of a false moral agenda in
order to achieve agency and empowerment.

This perspective is based on the grounds that youth should be treated more
respectfully by adults and not as second-class citizens. Some suggest that social
stratification in age groups causes outsiders to incorrectly stereotype and generalize the
group, for instance that all adolescents are equally immature, violent or rebellious, listen to
rock tunes, and do drugs. Some have organized groups against age discrimination.

Ageism is the causal effect of a continuum of fears related to age. This continuum
includes:

• Pediaphobia: the fear of infants or small children.

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 • Ephebiphobia: the fear of youth.
• Gerontophobia: the fear of elderly people.

Related terms include:

• Adultism: Also called adultarchy, adult privilege, and adultcentrism/adultocentrism,

this is the wielding of authority over young people and the preference of adults
before children and youth.
• Jeunism: Also called "youthism" is the holding of beliefs or actions taken that
preference 'younger' people before adults.

1.8 Gender discrimination

Though gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and attitudes in relation
to the gender of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not,
normally, carry any legal consequences. Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may have
legal consequences.

Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is
that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have
occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain
enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries.

Currently, discrimination based on sex is defined as adverse action against another

person, that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. This is considered
a form of prejudice and is illegal in certain enumerated circumstances in most countries.

Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may
be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or
because an employer did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on
his or her gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender.

In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an
educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to his
or her gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused
negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his

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or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is
banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on
one’s gender. (Wilson, 2003).

Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused
to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden
of unequal loan terms based on one’s gender.

Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and
women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles (Ridley, 2008).

While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major
reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of
characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and
women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference (Hyde,
2005).

Unfair discrimination usually follows the gender stereotyping held by a society.

Transgender individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience
problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job,
social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them.

1.9 Disability discrimination

People with disabilities face discrimination in all levels of society. The attitude that
disabled individuals are inferior to non-disabled individuals is called "ableism".

Disabled people may also face discrimination by employers. They may find
problems with securing employment as their handicap can be seen as a risk to the company,
and once in employment they may find they are overlooked for promotion opportunities.
Similarly, if an employee becomes disabled while employed they may also find themselves
being managed out the company by HR departments.

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 Unsympathetic employers can make life very difficult for such employees and can
often make their health problems worse. Disability discrimination laws mean that in theory
the employee has a method of redress in such instances.

Almost every person with a syndrome is discriminated against. They may not be
able to join organizations, and they may even be neglected by schools and other public
utilities.

2. Prejudice

The word prejudice refers to prejudgment: making a decision about before

becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event. The word has commonly been used
in certain restricted contexts, in the expression 'racial prejudice'. Initially this is referred to
making a judgment about a person based on their race, religion, class, etc., before receiving
information relevant to the particular issue on which a judgment was being made; it came,
however, to be widely used to refer to any hostile attitude towards people based on their
race or even by just judging someone without even knowing them. Subsequently the word
has come to be widely so interpreted in this way in contexts other than those relating to
race. The meaning now is frequently "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant
to rational influence." Race, sex, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, and religion have a
history of inciting prejudicial behaviour (Rosnow et al., 1972).

Prejudice refers to a positive or a negative attitude or belief directed toward certain

people based on their membership in a particular group. The root word of prejudice is "pre-
judge." It is "a set of attitudes which causes, supports, or justifies discrimination. Prejudice
refers to a tendency to "over categorize." Prejudiced people respond to others in a more or
less fixed way (Farley, 2000:18).

2.1 Forms of Prejudice

Farley (2000:18-19) calls attention to three kinds of prejudice.

2.1.1 Cognitive Prejudice

Cognitive prejudice refers to what people believe is true

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2.1.2 Affective Prejudice

Affective prejudice points to peoples likes and dislikes

2.1.3 Conative Prejudice

Conative prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. Note that this is still
an attitude because people don't actually act on their feelings. An example of conative
prejudice might be found in the statement "If I were in charge I'd send all the Wallonians
back to where ever they came from."

While these three types of prejudice are correlated, they don't have to all be present
in a particular individual. Someone, for example, might believe a particular group
possesses low levels of intelligence, but harbor no ill feelings toward that group. On the
other hand, one might not like a group because of intense competition for jobs, but still
recognize no inherent differences between groups.

2.2 Social Learning and Conformity as a Cause of Prejudice

The above discussion of prejudice is rather psychological. There is also the social
context to consider when one attempts to understand prejudice. Social scientists who study
social learning and conformity as causes of prejudice focus on the social environment
within which people live. The social environment is important. One should note, adoption
of prejudiced attitudes can occur throughout the life-cycle.

People learn to be prejudice through socialization processes like internalization,

modeling, and reward and punishment.

A. Agents of Socialization

Values are internalized as people encounter various agents of socialization.

Attitudes and behaviors are learned within a social context where agents of socialization
are important (Farley, 2000:29-32).

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1. The Family

The family is probably the most important of the agents of socialization. Family is
responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and
establishing career goals.

2. The School

This agency is responsible for socializing groups of young people in particular

skills and values in our society.

3. Peer Groups

Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).

4. Work

5. The State

6. Media

The effect on prejudice of television and the movies is substantial. The media's
portrayal of racial and ethnic groups may be a person's principal source of information.
Therefore, if the media communicates primarily in stereotypes and the viewer has little
opportunity for personal contact with members of that minority, the probability of the
stereotype becoming the reality to the viewer is high.

Hollywood movies have thoroughly dehumanized the nonwhite world. The whites, who are
the exploiters, consistently show up as the "good guys." Whites are portrayed as the
bearers of civilization and all that is just and humane. Their superiority is taken as the
natural order of things, and their "justified" extermination of the nonwhites provides a
"happy" ending (Kitano, 1985:52).

B. Selective Exposure and Modeling

Farley (2000:29) notes that "if a child is exposed to one set of values over time, the
child will eventually come to view that set of vales as the "natural way". This is especially
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true when the models are someone whom the child is especially close to like parents or
close relatives.

C. Reward and Punishment

All agents of socialization reward behavior and expression of attitude that conform
to their norms and punish those that do not. These rewards and punishments are sometime
very formal. Other types of rewards and sanctions are informal and imprompt (Farley,
2000:29).

2.3 Personality Theory Versus Social Learning Theory

There is complex interaction between these two and it is often difficult to sort out
the differences between the two.

2.4 Socioeconomic Status and Prejudice

Farley (2000:33-36) contends that there is a relatively strong relationship between

ones social class and the level of prejudice. Higher levels of prejudice are seen in people of
lower SES. There are a couple of logical explanations for this.

2.5 What is Socioeconomic Status (SES)?

Farley (2005:32) notes that nearly all societies tend to group themselves by
socioeconomic status. SES is a concept which is rather complex. The average citizen may
tend to group people according to simple criteria like income or wealth. SES is a more
robust concept. Socioeconomic status (SES) calls attention the complex nature of social
class. It is determined by an array of social and economic indicators. It is also subject to
interpretation form various social perspectives.

2.5.1 Objective Measures

There are objective measures of social class. Henslin (1999:253) suggests that
researches can assign people to various social classes based objective criteria involving
wealth, power, and prestige. Some objective indicators can include occupation, educational
level, number of dependents, type of residence, infant mortality, and life expectancy rates.

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2.5.2 Subjective Measures

There are also subjective measures. Typically, determining class from a subjective
point of view involves asking someone how they perceive their class position.

2.5.3 Reputational Measures

Finally, class can be determined using the reputational method (Henslin, 1999:253).
People identify an individual's social class based on their expert knowledge of their
individual's circumstances. The reputational method is limited to smaller communities,
where people are familiar with one another's reputation. People at each class level see class
differently. They, there fore, carry around different personal pictures of society's classes.
People see finer divisions at their own class level, but tend to lump together people who
occupy other class levels. For example, People at the top see several divisions of people at
the top while they see one large monolithic group of people at the bottom. On the other
hand, people at the bottom see several distinctions of poor people, but only one group at the
top -- the rich (Henslin, 1999:253).

2.6 Education and Prejudice

Most research indicates that people with higher levels of education score lower on
most measures of prejudice. One argument suggests that people with lower socio-economic
(SES) backgrounds are more rigid thinkers. Farley (2000) argues that there is a
relationship between prejudice and intolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. People of
higher SES are often better educated and education is often seen as a way to breaking down
oversimplified, stereotypical thinking. As we become better educated, we become better
able to understand complex ideas and situations. (Farley, 2000:34).

The apparent relationship between education and prejudice may also be due to other
effects. Perhaps people with higher levels of education people simply know how to
respond with politically correct answers regarding racial and ethnic issues, thus masking
their true feelings (Farley, 2000:34).

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2.7 More Observations on Prejudice

Farley (2000:35) notes that our ability to handle complex thought is affected by
other conditions besides educational levels. He notes that we tend to rely on stereotypes
more when we are busy, overwhelmed, or even functioning at a non optimal time.

2.8 Status Insecurity and Prejudice

Another explanation resides in the relationship between status insecurity and

prejudice. If, in fact, a person who is more status insecure is prejudice one can easily see
why people from lower SES positions are more prone to prejudice.

2.9 Lower SES and Prejudice

Lower SES representatives of the dominate group are placed in more direct
competition for resources with minorities. Lower SES members of majority groups
experience a greater threat from minority competition.

2.10 How can we help our children learn to deal with prejudice?

Sadly, over four decades after the civil rights movement of the 1960s, our children
are growing up in a society in which prejudice and bigotry are still commonplace. Although
laws have been implemented and many attitudes have changed, bigotry based on racial,
ethnic, and religious grounds remains too much a part of the daily lives of children and
families.

Our children are growing up in a time when the racial and ethnic composition of our
country is rapidly changing. In some areas of the nation, groups of people previously
characterized as racial or ethnic minorities make up the majority of the population.

Children are also being exposed to different cultures through the media. They are
learning and forming opinions about people and events all over the country and the world.
As a result, there is more of a need and opportunity to help children learn to understand and
value diversity.

Children's encounters with prejudice are not confined to ethnic and racial
stereotypes and bias. Every day, children are exposed to the way some individuals are
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valued more or less because of their gender or age. Young children may or may not be
aware of the preferential treatment boys tend to receive from their teachers over girls. But
they are very much aware that their feelings, opinions and beliefs receive less consideration
because of their youth. As children approach adolescence, they also become increasingly
aware of the more subtle prejudices and intolerances tied to differences in social class and
religion.

2.11 The impact of prejudice on children

It is critical that you help your child deal with diversity in a positive way. Prejudice
is learned at a very young age from parents, other children and people and institutions
outside of the family. By about 4 years of age, children are aware of differences among
people, primarily in characteristics like appearance, language and names, but later they are
aware of religious and cultural distinctions as well. To some extent, children begin to define
and identify themselves through their understanding of these personal differences. This is
normal.

As youngsters try to make sense of these individual distinctions, they may hear and
accept simplified stereotypes about others. When that happens, they not only develop
distorted views of the youngsters and adults they encounter in daily life, but they may start
to deny and overlook the common, universal human elements and traits that would bring
people together. As a result, intolerance may develop where there should be friendship.

2.12 How schools can diffuse prejudice

Schools should be a place where your child learns more than academic skills. They
should also promote understanding and cooperation among people, not prejudice.

Here are some questions to ask schoolteachers and administrators about your child's
educational environment:

• Do learning and problem-solving tasks emphasize cooperation and team play, while
minimizing excessive competition? Children should not be placed in situations
where differences in gender, race, ethnicity, economic status, and academic ability
are stressed, or are even allowed to be expressed in a negative, divisive way. Rather,
whether the academic skill being taught is math or spelling, or the activity is drama
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 or sports, part of each child's grade should be dependent on the achievement of the
entire group. Team spirit can conquer feelings of difference and separateness that
children experience among themselves.
• Does the school have a curriculum that covers the different races, religions and
cultures? Is your youngster continuously exposed to the achievements and
contributions of all the cultures?
• Does the school take advantage of ethnic holidays - Chinese New Year, Cinco de
Mayo, Kwanzaa, etc.- for children to actively learn customs and traditions with
which they may not be familiar?
• Do teachers have open discussions in class about discrimination and negative
feelings toward others? If an incident involving prejudice has occurred at school or
in the community, is it used as a springboard to discuss these issues in a sensitive,
nonpunitive, nonstigmatizing way that emphasizes the common human qualities of
people?

Published online: 6/07

Source: Caring for Your School-Age Child: Ages 5 to 12 (Copyright © 2003 American
Academy of Pediatrics)

3. Stereotype

A stereotype is a preconceived idea that attributes certain characteristics (in

general) to all the members of class or set. The term is often used with a negative
connotation when referring to an oversimplified, exaggerated, or demeaning assumption
that a particular individual possesses the characteristics associated with the class due to his
or her membership in it. Stereotypes can be used to deny individuals respect or legitimacy
based on their membership in that group.

Stereotypes often form the basis of prejudice and are usually employed to explain real or
imaginary differences due to race, gender, religion, ethnicity, socio-economic class,
disability, occupation, etc. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified
conception, opinion, or image based on the belief that there are attitudes, appearances, or
behaviors shared by all members of a group. Stereotypes are forms of social consensus
rather than individual judgments. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory

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correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely correlated if
correlated at all. Stereotypes may be occasionally positive.

3.1 Causes

Sociologists believe that mental categorizing is necessary and inescapable. One

perspective on how to understand stereotyping process is through the categories or
ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the
group that one associates with or aspires to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups.
They are seen as lesser or inferior than the ingroups.

A second perspective is that of automatic and implicit or subconscious and

conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without
noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an implicit or conscious check
which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by
implicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into
subconscious stereotypes.

A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types.

Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being
the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad
stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the
sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would
be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing
perspectives.

One reason people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the
complexities of other people. Even though stereotyping is inaccurate, it is efficient.
Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict,
and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories,
there is every incentive to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each
individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time
and satisfies the need to predict the social world.

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 People also tend to stereotype because of another the need to feel good about
oneself. Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. By designating
one’s own group as the standard or normal group and assigning others to groups considered
inferior or abnormal, it provides one with a sense of worth.

Many scientific theories have derived from the sociological studies of stereotyping
and prejudicial thinking. During the early studies it was believed or suggested that
stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists
concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and
emotional development. They now know differently. Scientist and theorists have concluded
that stereotypes do not only exist, but are actually a never ending chain of thoughts.

Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance:
Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women
read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual
connection and that one’s own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information
to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there
must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or
stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory.
Stereotyping is principally theory and is not based much on factual evidence. An example
of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based
on external appearance. The explanation for one’s actions is his or her internal state (goals,
feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance.

Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for
stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons
in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of
unknown individuals” (Hurst, 2007). Different disciplines give different accounts of how
stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of
communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the
relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure.
Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes,
by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.

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 Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means
of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social
status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal
characteristics of group members (Jost et al., 1994). Groups which enjoy fewer social and
economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain and justify
disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may
have greater difficulty finding employment due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related
social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as
'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart
enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work).

Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups.

Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences (Brewer,
1979). This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more
alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American
citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more
American than African (McAndrew et al., 1995). Yet within American culture, Black and
White Americans are increasingly seen as completely different groups.

3.2 Effects, accuracy, terminology

Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson
and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping,
particularly its effect on African-Americans and women (Steele et al. 1995). They argue
that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation
and interactions with others. They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus
feedback to college students dramatically affected their IQ test performance, and another in
which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told
that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the
others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to
minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering
students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being
done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly
worse than the other group (Aronso et al., 2005).

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3.2.1 Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:

• Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance

• Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
• Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from entering or succeeding in
activities or fields

The effects of stereotyping can fluctuate, but for the most part they are negative,
and not always apparent until long periods of time have passed. Over time, some victims of
negative stereotypes display self-fulfilling prophecy behavior, in which they assume that
the stereotype represents norms to emulate. Negative effects may include forming
inaccurate opinions of people, scapegoating, erroneously judgmentalism, preventing
emotional identification, distress, and impaired performance. Stereotyping painfully
reminds those being judged of how society views them.

3.2.2 Research

During the 1960’s, psychologist Irwin Katz suggested that stereotypes could
influence performance on IQ tests. Katz found that Blacks were able to score better on an
IQ subtest, if the test was presented as a test of eye-hand coordination. Blacks also scored

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higher on an IQ test when they believed the test would be compared to that of other blacks.
Katz concluded that his subjects were thoroughly aware of the judgment of intellectual
inferiority held by many white Americans. With little expectation of overruling this
judgment, their motivation was low, and so were their scores.

The phenomenon was later examined by the social psychologists Claude Steele and
Joshua Aronson, who articulated the mechanism of "stereotype threat" that contributes to
test performance of minority groups. In one such study, Steele and Aronson (1995)
administered the Graduate Record Examination to European American and African
American students. Half of each group was told that their intelligence was being measured,
while the other half didn't know what the test was measuring. The European American
students performed almost equally in the two conditions of the experiment. African
Americans, in contrast, performed far worse than they otherwise would have when they
were told their intelligence was being measured. The researchers concluded this was
because stereotype threat made the students anxious about confirming the stereotype
regarding African American IQ. The researchers found that the difference was even more
noticeable when race was emphasized.

"When capable black college students fail to perform as well as their white
counterparts, the explanation often has less to do with preparation or ability than with the
threat of stereotypes about their capacity to succeed."

- Claude M. Steele, The Atlantic Monthly, August 1999 Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and
Black College Students

4. Summary

Children can suffer from a climate of prejudice. Prejudice creates social and
emotional tension and can lead to fear and anxiety and occasionally hostility and violence.
Prejudice and discrimination can undermine the self-esteem and self-confidence of those
being ridiculed and make them feel terrible, unaccepted and unworthy. When that happens,
their school performance often suffers, they may become depressed and socially withdrawn
and childhood can become a much less happy time.

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 Schools should be a place where your child learns more than academic skills. They
should also promote understanding and cooperation among people, not prejudice.

Sometimes "stereotype" and "prejudice" are confused. Stereotypes are standardized

and simplified conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are
created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are
predispositions to differential behavior patterns.

Childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in
developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually
acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media.
Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating.

Reference:

Aronson J, Steele CM. (2005). Chapter 24:Stereotypes and the Fragility of Academic
Competence, Motivation, and Self-Concept. In Handbook of Competence, [ p. 436].

Brewer, M (1979). "In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-

motivational analysis". Psychological Bulletin 86: 307–324. doi:10.1037/0033-
2909.86.2.307

Eitzen, D. Stanley and Maxine Baca-Zinn 1994 Social Problems. (6rd Ed.) Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

Harrington, Michael 1984 The New American Poverty. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.

Hurst, Charles E. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6. Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc, 2007

Hyde, J. S. (2005) “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis”, American Psychologist, 60(6):

581 592.

Jost, JT; Banaji, MB (1994). "The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the
production of false consciousness". British Journal of Social Psychology 33: 1–27.

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Kirton, G. & Green. A. (2004) The Dynamics of Managing Diversity, Butterworth-
Heinemann (2nd Edition).

McAndrew, FT; Akande, A (1995). "African perceptions of Americans of African and

European descent". Journal of Social Psychology 135 (5): 649–655.

Rosnow, Ralph L.; Poultry and Prejudice. Psychologist Today, (March, 1972): p. 53.

Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2008) "Gendering, Courtship and Pay Equity: Developing Attraction

Theory to Understand Work-Life Balance and Entrepreneurial Behaviour", paper to the
31st ISBE Conference, 5th-7th November, Belfast

Robertson, Ian 1989 Society: A Brief Introduction. New York: Worth Publishing.

Sendhil Mullainathan and Marianne Bertrand (2003). "Are Emily and Greg More
Employable Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination",
NBER Working Paper No. 9873, July, 2003).

Steele CM, Aronson J (November 1995). "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test
performance of African Americans". J Pers Soc Psychol 69 (5): 797–811. PMID 7473032.
http://content.apa.org/journals/psp/69/5/797.

Wilson, F. (2003) Organizational Behaviour and Gender (2nd Edition), Aldershot: Ashgate.

http://www.finduslaw.com/age_discrimination_in_employment_act_of_1967_adea_29_u_s
_code_chapter_14

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