Real World Effects on VRLA Batteries in Float Applications

Co-authoredby Joe Jergl, Bruce Cole, and StevePurcell GNB Technologies,

ABSTRACT

Lombard, IL 60148 The combination of VRLAs additional failure modes and the harsh environments in which they are used present several new problems for battery designers. Specifically, striking a balance between the need to prevent thermal runaway, the need for proper positive plate polarization, and the need to avoid sulfation of the negative plate, is a key issue which must be carefully considered in order to maximize VRLA design life. At the sametime, it is essential for the user community to understand the impact of these new environments. By making sure that the operating conditions are as close to idea1aspossible, the user can increasethe useful life of the batteries. The key variables which must be controlled are temperature and float voltage. This paper discussesthe effect of these two variables on float current and plate polarization and how to balance contradictory needs in order to maximize the life of VIUA batteries.
2. PURPOSE OF FLOAT VOLTAGE

This paper explores some effects that todays operating environments have on valve-regulated, lead-acid (VRLA) batteries and gives suggestions for maximizing VRLA battery life in these environments. Specifically, this paper discussesthe effects of temperature and float voltage on float current and positive plate and relates these effects to the expectedlife of the battery.
1. INTRODUCTION

The lead-acid battery is an electrochemical plant that functions by slowly consuming itself. Whether the battery is flooded or valve regulated (VRLA), proper operating conditions are paramount to maximizing battery life. However, VRLA batteries have characteristics that make them even more sensitive to proper operating conditions than flooded batteries. In fact, several failure modes exist which are unique to VRLA batteries relative to flooded designs. Theseunique failure modesinclude negative strap corrosion, dry-out, (due to water loss via vent operation, normal positive grid corrosion, improper charging, and water vapor permeability of containers), and loss of compression in the absorbent glass mat (AGM) separator material. Other technical papers presented in the past have discussed the first two of these failure modes and they are fairly well understood. The AGM compressionloss is a relatively new discovery and has been covered by GNB in other papersand workshops. We will continue to report our findings horn our ongoing investigating of this issue. While VRLA batteries have some unique failure modes, they also offer significant benefits versusflooded batteries: l they give off much lesshydrogen gas . somecan be installed in any orientation . they do not require any regular electrolyte maintenance. The good news is that, owing to these unique characteristics, VRLA batteriescan be used in environments where flooded batteries typically cannot be used such as Huts, CEVs, and distributed cabinets. The bad news is that these environmentsoften presentmuch harsherconditions than the central office where flooded batteriesare used. The central office environment is characterized by controlled temperature, controlled float voltage, filtered charging current, and regular maintenance. In these new environments, temperature extremes and variability, uncontrolled humidity, dust, dirt, and lack of ventilation, can all conspireto shortenthe life of a VRLA battery.

First of all, lets define the importance of proper float voltage in general terms. A constant voltage float charge is applied to a stand-by battery in order to ensure that the battery is at full state-of-charge(SOC) capacity when it is needed. SOC is defined as the batterys actual ability to deliver current at a particular point in time relative to its rated capacity. For example, a 90% SOC means a battery will deliver 90% of its rated capacity if it is dischargedwhile at that SOC. So the main purpose of the float voltage is to keep the battery at a 100% SOC so it will deliver the desired amount of current or power, for the desired period of time, to a specified end voltage. However, as stated earlier, a battery functions by slowly destroying itself. Specifically, the normal wear-out mode for a lead-acid battery is positive grid corrosion which occurs during battery charging. So the key to proper float voltage is keeping the battery fully charged (which is function of float current) while minimizing grid corrosion (which is a function of positive plate polarization) in order to maximize the health and life of the VIUA battery.

5.1

3.

RESPONSE TO CHARGING

CURRENT

VRLA batteries respond differently to a charging current than do their flooded counterparts. Specifically, when a charging current is applied to a flooded cell, the following eventsoccur (seeFigure 1): . cell voltage increases; . positive plate potential increases; . negativeplate potential increases.
oltage I

battery. The OCV of the cell is the sum of the individual potentials of the positive and negative plates. When the charging current applied to the cell reaches a certain level, the positive and negative plates begin to become polarized relative to their open circuit potentials. The polarization does not occur immediately becausethe initial current goes to replace current lost due to self discharge. Thesepolarizations causethe voltage of the cell to rise such that it is equal to the cells OCV plus the positive and negative polarization levels. For example, say a flooded cell has an OCV of 2.06 and a 2.17 float charge voltage is applied to the cell. The cell voltage is now 2.17 so there is a total of 1lOmV of polarization between the positive and negative plates. For the sake of discussion, lets say that the positive plate polarization is 65mV so the negative plate polarization is 45mV (refer to Figure 1 to seethat this is reasonable). Recall that, for VRLA cells (seeFigure 2), the negative plate polarization remains low until the charging current value becomesvery large. To relate this to the example above, assumethat a VRLA cell has an OCV of 2.15 and a 2.26 float voltage is applied. Like before, there is 110 mV total polarization so the individual polarizations still have to add up to 11OmV. Referring to Figure 2, assumethat the negative polarization is only 5mV instead of 45mV. This meansthat the positive plate polarization must now be 105mV which is much higher than the 65mV we saw in the flooded example. The point is that, relative to the negative plate polarization, the positive plate polarization is much higher in VRLA batteries than in flooded batteries. As we shall see later, positive plate polarization is directly related to the rate at which the positive grid corrodes. But before we get there, lets take a closer look at what happensinside a VRLA battery on float charge. Besidesreplacing current taken out of the battery during any discharges,the charging (float) current also supports several competing chemical and electrochemicalreactions.

Cel

Figure 1: Simplified Tafel Curves for FloodedCells

The responseof a VRLA cell to a charging current is similar except in one important aspect. As shown in Figure 2, the cell voltage and positive plate potential both increaseas with flooded batteries, but the negative plate potential remains depresseduntil the charging current value becomes very large.
r: oltage

Cell vdtd
+mV 0.C.L

-mL

Figure 2: Simplified Tafel Curves for VRLA Cells

To understandwhy this is important, we need to talk about open circuit voltage (OCV). The OCV of a battery is defined as the voltage across the terminals of the battery when nothing is connectedto it. At open circuit, the plates have a potential which is a function of the specific gravity of the electrolyte in the

Specifically, the float current must also be high enough to replace current lost due to self-discharge. At the sametime, the normal corrosion of the positive grid and the oxygen recombination processalso consumecurrent. So the charging current must be high enough to compensate for all three other reactions (besidescharging the battery) in order for the battery to remain at a full SOC.

5.2

At an optimum constant float voltage and temperature,the VRLA battery will draw as much current as it needs to support all of these internal reactions and keep the battery charged. But float voltage and temperature are not always well controlled so the current actually drawn by the battery will vary and can becomedetrimental to the batterys health and life outside of certain limits. The trick is defming certain limits for both float voltage and temperature. The answer is neither obvious nor simple since they both affect plate polarization. They also both affect float current which has a direct impact on thermal management issues. The following sections explore the individual impacts of float voltage and positive plate polarization and then their combined effects.
4. OPTIMUM FLOAT VOLTAGE

current will go toward the oxygen recombination process which is an exothermic reaction. The result is that the excess current will be converted to heat and the internal temperature of the battery will continue to increase unchecked(seethermal runaway discussionbelow).
4.2. Float Voltage Effects on Positive Plate Polarization

The detailed dynamics of plate polarization are quite complex and beyond the scope of this paper. However, a discussion of positive plate polarization (PPP) is necessary to understandthe effects of float voltage and temperatureon battery life. For our purposes, the reason that PPP is important is that it has a direct impact on positive grid corrosion. Figure 4 shows the correlation betweenPPP and a grid corrosion rate acceleration factor which is a measure of how fast the grid will corrode relative to an optimal PPPlevel which has a factor of 1.0.
1 5.0wr~---~,~----,-----,----

The optimum float voltage for a VRLA battery is that which: . allows for a float current which will compensate for all side reactions . results in a positive plate polarization value at the minimum positive grid corrosion rate
4.1. Float Voltage Effects on Float Current

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4.000 3.500 3.000 2.*00 2.000 1.500 1.ow 0 50

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Figure 3 shows an example of float currents which would result for a GNB Absolyte IIP for various float voltages at 25C. It is clear in this example that at 2.23 VPC and above, the float current is sufficient to overcome selfdischarge and still provide the current required by the positive grid corrosion and oxygen recombination processes.

too

15.0 PPP (ml,

200

250

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Figure 4: Positive Grid Corrosion Acceleration vs. (+) Plate Polarization

One should observe that there is a range around an optimal PPP level (which is at the bottom of the curve) where grid corrosion is not significantly accelerated. The exact optimal level varies depending on specific design details but, for the sake of this discussion, we will assume that 75mV is optimal and a range of 40mV to 120mV is acceptable. The most important thing to recognize from Figure 4 is that once the PPP level deviates beyond this range - either higher or lower - the rate of corrosion accelerates rapidly.
2.21 2.23 2.25 float voaape 2.27 (VPC) 2.30 2.35

Figure 3: Float Voltage Effects of Float Current at a Fixed Temperature

The chart also shows,for this example,that at 2.2 1 VPC, the float current is not sufficient to support all of these Since the grid corrosion and oxygen reactions. recombination processeswill draw as much current as is available, there will not be enough current left to overcome self-dischargeand the battery will never reach a full SOC. At the other end of the scale, a too-high float voltage of 2.35 will provide much more current than is needed. The excess

So, given that proper PPP is important becauseof its effect on grid corrosion, how does float voltage affect PPP? Figure 5 (next page) shows an example of PPP levels for various float voltages at four different temperature levels. At a float voltage of 2.25 VPC, we see that the PPP levels for all four temperaturesare within the acceptablerange. At the low end of the float voltage range, we see that we begin to reachthe low end of the acceptablePPPrange. It is also clear that, in this example, a float voltage above 2.27 causesthe PPPto quickly exceedthe acceptablerange at the lowest temperature.

5.3

-1SC -m-WC

-2OC 7x--45c

-25.C

Problems for VRLA batteries can occur when the average temperatureis higher or lower than 25C, if the temperature varies by more than +lOC from the average, and/or if the temperaturevariations do not follow a sine wave over time. These problems are exasperated if float voltage is not temperature compensated. The temperature/float voltage relationship will be discussedlater in this paper. But first, we needto take a closer look at the effects of temperatureon float current and positive plate polarization.
5.1. Temperature Effects on Float Current

Float Voltage

[V)

gure 5: Example of Float Voltage Effects on Positive Plate Polarization

Figure 6 showsthe effect of temperatureon float current at a fixed float voltage. It is clear that increase in temperature leads to a dramatic increasein float current and, conversely, as temperaturedrops, float current drops off rapidly. For example, at 45C we see that there is a great deal of excess current going into the battery. While the current demands of self-discharge and positive grid corrosion are increasing, there is more than enough current to satisfy their needs and all the excess current goes into the oxygen recombination process. As discussedabove, this processis exothermic so the excess current results in the generation of significant heat. This heat causes the temperature of the battery to rise even further so the battery draws even more current which generatesmore heat which causesthe battery to draw more current . . . (seethermal runaway discussionbelow). At the other end of the scale, we see that a temperatureof 15C results in a float current which is insufficient to support the chemical and electrochemical processes necessaryfor the battery to function. The result is that the battery will never reach a full SOC and the plates will eventually sulfate to the point that the cell is no longer useful for its intended purpose.
5.2. Effects on Positive Plate Polarization

This is why battery manufacturers specify an acceptable float voltage range and a recommendedvalue at a particular temperature. For example the GNB Absolyte IIP family has a recommendedfloat voltage of 2.25 volts per cell (VPC) at 25C with an acceptable range of 2.23VPC to 2.27VPC. The acceptablerange \;indow reflects an expected accuracy of the rectifier voltage control at *I% of the setting.
5. OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE

Lead-acid battery manufacturers use a temperature specification which is normally 25C (77F) or 20C (68OF). All electrical ratings and performance specifications are basedon this specified standard temperature. Furthermore, the design life of the batteries is specified at this standard temperatureand the design life is cut approximately in half for every 10C (1YF) that the ambient operating temperaturerises abovethat optimal temperature. Unfortunately, increasingly few places where lead-acid batteries are used are controlled to exactly 25C. Most battery manufacturersrealize this and generally accept and designfor seasonaltemperaturevariations to somedegree.

Figure 7 (next page) shows the effect of temperature on positive plate polarization (PPP) at various float voltages. Observe that at the optimal temperature of 25C the PPP levels are within the acceptable range at all of the float voltages shown. At the extremes of the temperature range, we see that, depending on the float voltage, we begin to push the PPP levels to the edges of the acceptablerange so that positive grid corrosion is accelerated.
15-c 2-z-c 2x WC Temperature WC WC 4sc

Figure 6: TemperatureEffects On Float Current at a Fixed Float Voltage

5.4

In fact, a small percentagedecreasein float voltage leads to a fairly large decrease in PPP while a large percentage decreasein temperature leads to a relatively small increase in PPP. The result is that, although the low temperature partially offsets the low float voltage, you still end up with a significant decreasein PPP. The risk is that, if this decrease in PPPis too large, it can lead to acceleratedgrid corrosion.
0 11 15C
-2.21

Effect on Float Current

2o'c +223 25C -225

3oC T*mpar.tre
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-23

45%

Figure 7: Example of Temperature Effects On Positive Plate Polarization

6.

COMBINED

EFFECTS

Low float voltage and low temperatureboth causelow float current. This meansthe battery will not have enough current available to it to support its internal reactions so it will never reach its ml1 state of charge. Also, the negative plates will sulfate leading to a shortenedlife.
Effect on Life

So far we have discussedthe effects that variations in float voltage and temperaturehave on float current and positive We now need to look at plate polarization individually. their combined effects and then answer the next logical question: What doesthis all mean in terms of battery life? After all, thats what really counts. For the purposes of this section, Figure 8 shows expected life of a GNB Absolyte IIP battery for various float voltages and temperatures. The following paragraphs explain the effect on life of several different temperature-float voltage scenarios. It must be emphasizedhere that this chart assumesthat the float voltage and temperature are held constant throughout the life of the battery. Although this is not a real-world assumption,the chart still serves to illustrate the theoretical effectsof temperatureand float voltage on life.

Referring to the GNB Absolyte TIP example in Figure 8, we see that at the lowest float voltages shown (2.21 and 2.23 VPC) and the lowest temperatureshown (1SC), the life is at a minimum. Low float voltage combined with low temperatureis very detrimental to VRLA battery life.
6.2. Low Float Voltage & High Temperature Effect on Positive Plate Polarization

Both of these conditions causereduced PPP which can lead to acceleratedgrid corrosion.
E#ect on Float Current

Low float voltage decreases float current while high temperatureincreasesit. A lower float voltage can partially compensatefor the higher temperature (or vice-versa) to help keep float current within an acceptablerange. This is one of the fundamental principles behind temperature compensation(see Section 6.5).
EfSect on Life

Although the combination of low float voltage and highs temperatureis not ideal, it will actually result in longer life than if both variables are low (see Section 6.1 above and Section 6.5 on temperaturecompensation). This is shown in Figure 8. For example, by examining the 2.21 VPC line, it can be seenthat life expectancy is greater at 30C than it is at 25C. However, it should also be noted that as soon as the temperature goes above 30C life expectancy begins to drop off rapidly. This says that there are limits to temperaturecompensation(seeSection 6.5).
6.3. High Float Voltage & Low Temperature Effect on Positive Plate Polarization

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Figurel: GNB Absolyte IIP Life VS Temperatures & Float Voltage

6.1. Low Float Voltage & Low Temperature Effect on Positive Plate Polarization

Low float voltage decreases positive plate polarization (PPP)while low temperatureincreasesit. Although it would seemreasonableto assumethat thesetwo effects cancel each other out, this is not the case.

Theseconditions will both increasePPPwhich could lead to acceleratedgrid growth.

Effect on Float Current

High float voltage increases float current while low temperaturedecreases it. Similar to the situation in 6.2, the

5.5
2.6

higher float voltage can partially offset the reduction in float current due to low temperature (see temperature compensationdiscussionin Section 6.5).
Effect on L$e

gassing and possible dry-out which will lead to premature loss of capacity. At the sametime, you cannot not lower the float voltage to a very low level to compensatefor very high temperatures. This will result in insufficient polarization of the plates which will lead to acceleratedgrid corrosion and shortened life of the battery.
2.500

Again, although this combination is not ideal, it is better than if both variables are either high or low. The is shown in Figure 8 where we see that the higher float voltage lines (2.27 VPC for example) result in longer life at lower temperatures than they do at higher temperatures. At the same time, it can be seen that at low temperature (15C for example), relatively longer life expectanciesare achievedat higher float voltages than they are at lower ones (see Section6.5).
6.4. High Float Voltage & High Temperature Effect on Positive Plate Polarization

400

The high float voltage will increase PPP while the low temperature will reduce PPP. However, the high float voltage increases PPP more than the high temperature decreasesit. The net effect will be increased PPP and accelerated grid corrosion.
Effect on Float Current

2 200

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Figure 9: TemperatureCompensationExample

The more concerning aspect of these conditions occurring together is that they both increasefloat current. The excess float current will generate heat which raises temperature even further (seethermal runaway discussionbelow).
Effect on Life

Like the combination of low float voltage/low temperature, the combination of high float voltage/high temperature results in very low life expectancies(seeFigure 8). However, the combination of high float voltage and high temperatureis even worse becauseit could eventually lead to thermal runaway and the rapid destruction of the battery.
6.5. Temperature Compensation

Figure 9 shows a typical temperaturecompensationcurve of float voltage versus temperature. In the example shown, temperature compensation can be done between approximately 0C and 35C. Outside of this range, the float voltage must be held at a constant level to prevent gassing (at the low end of the temperature scale) or insufficient plate polarization (at the high end of the temperaturescale).
7. THERMAL STABILITY

A detailed analysis of thermal runaway is beyond the scope of this paper, but a brief explanation may be helpful in gaining a full understandingof the risks associatedwith high float current and the benefits of temperaturecompensation. It can be determined, for any battery, how much heat the battery can physically dissipate. For example, assume a particular battery design can dissipate x watts for each 1C rise in temperature. Assumefurther that the float current goes up due to a higher float voltage or an increase in ambient temperature. Any current in excess of that needed by the recharge or grid corrosion process or to overcome self discharge, will go toward the oxygen recombination process which generates heat. Recall that the battery can only dissipate x Watts per 1C If the recombination process temperature gradient. generatesx + y watts, the y watts cannot be dissipated so it will raise the temperatureof the battery.

In applications where the temperatureis not well controlled, benefit can be gained by adjusting the float voltage basedon temperature. For example, if the operating ambient is expected to consistentlybe below 25C a higher float voltage will offset someof the negative effects of lower temperature(see6.3). Conversely, if the operating ambient is higher than 25C, a lower float voltage may be appropriate to help keep the float current within an acceptablerange. There are, however, limits to temperature compensation. For instance, if the temperature is very low, you cannot simply raise the float voltage to a very high level to compensate for the low temperature because the float current will go too high. This will result in excessive

5.6

This increasein the temperaturewill causethe float current to rise even higher generating more heat which cannot be dissipated. The battery temperature rises causing float current to rise and, eventually, the battery goes into thermal runaway. It should be noted that there are many factors which can contribute to thermal runaway besidestemperatureand float voltage (e.g. shorted cells, heat conduction characteristicsof the battery, ground faults, float behavior of the battery with age, and poorly matched battery strings). But, by carefully controlling the float voltage and ambient temperature seen by the battery, the user can eliminate two of the most influential factors. Float voltage control is obviously a function of the rectifier so it is important to select a rectifier which has voltage control accuracy of +l% and temperature compensation capabilities. When assessingthe temperature the battery will see, it is important to consider solar exposure, air movement, and proximity of other heat generatorssuch as electronics.
8. SUMMARY

Although GNB and other battery manufacturesare actively researching ways to increase battery life in uncontrolled environments, it is critical for the user community to understand the impact of these environments on VRLA batteries. Specifically, the users need to make every possible attempt to control temperature and float voltage to as close as possible to the standard conditions specified by the manufacturer. Temperaturecompensationshould also be utilized wherever possible to help offset the negative impacts of these harsh environments.

5.7