- Chuong III -

Chng 3
Ky thut s hoa va nh dang tn hiu
Hu ht cac tn hiu cn truyn qua h thng truyn tin s u la tn hiu tng t. V th vn
u tin cn qua tm y la s hoa tn hiu tng t. Lnh vc s hoa tn hiu tng t
a c nghin cu manh trong vai chuc nm tr lai y. S nghin cu o a tao ra rt nhiu
kiu bin i khac nhau va trong mi kiu lai co rt nhiu bin th. Vic chon kiu cu th nao
la phu thuc vao lnh vc ng dung va cht lng truyn dn ma ta mong mun at c.
Mt trong nhng phng phap bin i tn hiu tng t sang s ph bin hn ca se c
trnh bay ky trong chng nay la iu ch xung ma PCM (Pulse Code Modulation). PCM cho
cht lng am bao vi gia thanh tng i. T PCM co nhng phng phap bin th cung
kha thng dung la PCM delta, iu ch xung ma vi sai DPCM (Differential Pulse Code
Modulation), iu ch delta DM ( Delta Modulation), DM thch nghi ADM (Adaptive DM).
Cac phng phap sau cho tc tn hiu s thp hn so vi PCM, dn n s dung bng
thng tit kim hn.
Tn hiu tng t sau khi chuyn sang dang s cn phai c biu din di mt dang thc
thch hp truyn i. Cac dang thc nh vy goi la ma ng (line code) va cng vic o
c goi la nh dang tn hiu s (digital signal format). Chng nay se gii thiu v mt s
loai ma ng thng gp cung vi cac c im cua chung.
Co th noi ting noi la loai tn hiu thng tin c truyn ph bin nht trong mang vin
thng. Chng nay se danh mt phn gii thiu s lc v ky thut ma hoa ting noi tc
thp nh vao cac b ma hoa thoai (voice coder). Qua trnh s hoa ting noi luc nay c
thc hin da trn nguyn tc ch ma hoa truyn i cac t hp m v la yu t c ban cu
thanh nn ting noi. B giai ma co th tao lai ting noi bng cach khi phuc lai cac t hp m
v nay. Tt nhin luc nay ting noi ch u hiu ch khng con gi c phn bit, tnh
trung thc, ng iu...cua ngi noi nh PCM.
Phn cui chng se trnh bay vai net v ky thut ma hoa audio cho tc thp nhng cht
lng cao, da trn nguyn tc ma hoa bng con (sub-band coding).
3. Ly mu
Ly mu (sampling) la bc u tin trong qua trnh bin i tn hiu tng t sang s theo
ky thut PCM. Muc ch cua bc ly mu nay la t tn hiu tng t, ta tao nn mt day
xung ri rac tun hoan rng bng nhau, bin xung bng v i gia tr cua tn hiu tng t tai
thi im ly mu. Day xung ri rac o con c goi la tn hiu iu ch bin xung PAM
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation). Hinh 3.1 a ra mt v du v tn hiu PAM. V nh cua tn
hiu PAM nay bng phng nn ta con goi la tn hiu flat-top PAM.
Nu tn hiu PAM co tn s u ln (tc la khoang cach gia cac xung canh nhau u nho) th
co th khi phuc lai tn hiu tng t ban u t tn hiu PAM.
- 44 -
- Chuong III -
nh ly ly mu Shannon a ra gii han di cua tn s o la hoc
m S
f 2 f
m s
2 ,
trong o la tn s cua tn hiu PAM va la tn s cc ai cua ph tn hiu tng t.
S
f
m
f
Trng hp tn hiu tng t la tn hiu thng dai co ph t f
L
n f
H
th tn s ly mu c
chon nh sau:
L s H
f
1 n
2
f f
n
2

trong o

=
L H
H
f f
f
int n
Vi du: ly mu tn hiu thoai tng t co ph t 0.3 - 3.4 kHz th theo nh ly ly mu
tnh c n = int(3.4/3.1) = 1. Suy ra f
s
6.8 kHz. Thc t, CCITT quy nh f
s
= 8 kHz.

Hnh 3.1 Tn hiu flat-top PAM
3.. Ly mu tu nhin (natural sampling)
Vic tao ra tn hiu PAM co nh bng phng nh hnh 3.1 rt ging vi ly mu t nhin,
trong o ly mu t nhin la qua trnh nhn tn hiu tng t vi day xung ly mu p
T
(t). Day
xung ly mu p
T
(t) la day xung vung tun hoan vi chu ky
m S S
f 2 f , f / 1 T = , rng
xung la , chiu cao xung la h = 1.
Co th khai trin Fourier cho day xung ly mu nh sau:
t
T
2
jk
k
T
e
T
k
T
k sin
T
1
) t ( p

=
Tn hiu ly mu co dang:
) t ( p ) t ( f ) t ( f
T S
=
Mt ph cua tn hiu ly mu la:
- 45 -
- Chuong III -
)
2
(
sin
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
T
k F
T
k
T
k
T
P F F
k
S

= =

=

Hinh 3.2 trnh bay tn hiu tng t, day xung ly mu, tn hiu ly mu va ph cua chung.
im cn lu y trong trng hp nay la nh cua tn hiu ly mu bam theo s bin thin cua
tn hiu tng t. Hnh 3.2 a, c, e ln lt la th cua tn hiu tng t, day xung ly mu va
tn hiu ly mu. V du tn hiu tng t la tn hiu thng thp vi ph co dang nh hnh 3.2b.
V day xung ly mu tun hoan nn ph cua day xung ly mu hnh 3.2 d la ph ri rac,
bao gm cac xung Dirac cach u nhau 1/T. Va v day xung ly mu la day xung vung tun
hoan nn ng bao cua cac xung Dirac la ph cua mt xung vung n dang (sinx)/x. Theo
tnh cht cu a phep bin i Fourier th phep nhn trong min thi gian tng ng vi phep
chp trong min tn s nn ph cua tn hiu ly mu co c bng cach tnh nh trnh bay
trn y va cn c vao o, ta co c th ph cua tn hiu ly mu nh hnh 3.2 f.
T hnh 3.2 f, ta thy ph cua tn hiu ly mu bao gm v s phin ban ph cua tn hiu
tng t nm cach nhau T / 2 . Nu tn s ly mu khng thoa man nh ly ly mu
Shannon hoc
m S
f 2 f
m s
2 th xay ra hin tng cac phin ban ph chng ln ln
nhau. Ta goi y la hin tng chng ph hay mp m ph (aliasing).

Hnh 3.2 Tn hiu ly mu t nhin va ph
Vic thc hin ly mu t nhin kha d dang, ch cn mt chuyn mach hai u vao mt u
ra tng t (analog bilateral switch) nh ch ra trong hinh 3.3. Mt v du cua loai chuyn
mach nay la 4016 (co sn trong phn cng cua CMOS).

- 46 -
- Chuong III -

- 47 -







Chuyn mach
p
T
(t)
f
s
(t) f(t)
Clock
Hnh 3.3 Mach tao tn hiu PAM ly mu t nhin
3..2 Ly mu tuc thoi (instaneous sampling)
Ngoai cach ly mu t nhin, ta con co th tao ra tn hiu flat-top PAM nh hnh 3.1. Vic
ly mu kiu nay con c goi la ly mu tc thi, y mun noi gia tr cua tn hiu flat-top
PAM bng vi gia tr cua tn hiu tng t ngay thi im ly mu va gi nguyn nh vy
trong sut thi gian bng rng xung ly mu.
tao ra tn hiu flat-top PAM, ta s dung b ly mu va gi mu (sampler & holder) nh
ch ra trong hinh 3.4.


R
r
C

rC <<
RC >> T



Hnh 3.4 Mach ly mu va gi mu
Vao thi im ly mu, khoa ong lai. Tu C c nap rt nhanh do rC rt nho. Tu C nap n
in ap bng vi gia tr in ap cua tn hiu tng t vao. Qua trnh nay chnh la ly mu. Sau
o khoa m ra. Do RC rt ln nn in ap trn tu C gn nh khng thay i. y chnh la
giai oan gi mu.
Trong thc t ngi ta rt quan tm n kiu ly mu tc thi. Ly do la chung ta khng cn
dung hnh dang cua xung cha thng tin truyn i va d tao ra dang xung ch nht. Thng
tin y ch cha trong bin cua xung ngay tai thi im ly mu. Khi truyn tn hiu qua
khoang cach xa, ta cn dung cac b lp (repeater) loc va khuch ai tn hiu trc khi
truyn tip n b lp k tip hay b thu. y, b lp ch cn tai tao xung ch khng cn
khuch ai xung (khac c ban vi thng tin tng t)
3..3 Khi phuc tin hiu ban du
So sanh hnh dang cua tn hiu flat-top PAM hnh 3.1 vi hnh dang cua tn hiu ly mu
hnh 3.2 e, ta thy chung khac nhau rt t. Do vy ma vic khi phuc tn hiu tng t ban
- Chuong III -
u t tn hiu flat-top PAM hay tn hiu ly mu rt ging nhau.
T biu thc mt ph va hnh ve 3.2 ta thy: nu tn s ly mu thoa nh ly ly mu th t
tn hiu PAM, ta co th khi phuc c tn hiu gc ban u nh mt b loc thng thp tn
s ct f
m
. Tn hiu khi phuc cang ging vi tn hiu ban u nu ty s T / cc nho. B loc
thng thp nay c goi la loc khi phuc (reconstruction filter).
T y, ta co th t kim tra lai cng thc la chon tn s ly mu trong trng hp tn hiu
tng t la tn hiu thng dai thay v la tn hiu thng thp.
Ngc lai, nu tn s ly mu khng thoa nh ly ly mu th do anh hng cua hin tng
chng ph (aliasing), ta khng th khi phuc tn hiu ban u. Vy chng anh hng cua
chng ph, ta t ngay trc b ly mu mt b loc thng thp loai bo cac thanh phn tn
s ln hn . Vic loai bo nay co khi anh hng i chut n cht lng tn hiu. 2 / f
S
3..4 Kt hop ly mu voi ghep knh phn chia theo thoi gian TDM
Nh a trnh bay trn, ty s rt nho ngha la khoang cach gia hai xung PAM canh
nhau rt ln. Ngi ta li dung khoang cach ln nay ghep vao va truyn i cac xung PAM
khac cua cac tn hiu t cac knh khac. Phng phap nay goi la ghep knh phn chia theo
thi gian TDM (Time Division Multiplexing).
S
T /
minh hoa nguyn ly TDM, ta xet v du hinh 3.5 thc hin ghep knh phn thi gian cho
hai tn hiu PAM la f
1
(t) va f
2
(t). Khoang cach gia hai xung PAM canh nhau trong dong tn
hiu ghep knh khng con la T na ma la T/2.

T/2
T
f
1
(t)
f
2
(t)








Hnh 3.5 Ghep knh theo thi gian cho hai tn hiu PAM

S thc hin ghep knh theo thi gian cho hai tn hiu PAM trnh bay trn hinh 3.6. Gia
s hai tn hiu la tn hiu thng thp (low-pass), tn s ti a la 3 kHz, theo nh ly ly mu
th tn s ly mu nho nht la 6 kHz. iu nay yu cu tc ti thiu cua ng h la 12 kHz
cho h thng nay hoat ng. Ngoai cach dung chung b ly mu ta cung co th s dung ring
tng b ly mu cho mi knh.
Vic truyn tn hiu ly mu t nhin hay flat-top PAM qua knh thng tin yu cu mt bng
thng rt rng so vi tn hiu tng t ban u v rng xung qua hep. Kha nng chng
nhiu cua tn hiu PAM khng c cai thin my so vi truyn trc tip tn hiu tng t.
- 48 -
- Chuong III -
iu nay dn n PAM khng thch hp cho truyn dn qua khoang cach xa. Khi truyn i
xa, phai chuyn i PAM sang dang s. Bai tip theo se xet vn chuyn i tn hiu PAM
sang dang s.
- 49 -






f
1
(t)
f
2
(t)
Ly mu
Tao xung Clock
LPF
PAM-
Hnh 3.6 S thc hin ghep knh theo thi gian cho hai tn hiu PAM
3.2 |u ch xung mo PCM
Ky thut iu ch xung ma PCM c xut ln u tin vao nm 1937 bi Alec Reeves -
mt ky s cua hang STC ( by gi la mt b phn cua Northern Telecom). PCM la mt ky
thut hiu qua chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang s, trong o cac xung PAM ri rac c
chuyn i thanh mt t ma s (digital word); o la mt dong bit ni tip (serial bit stream).
T nhng nm 1960, cac h thng thng tin s dung PCM ngay cang rng rai v nhng u
im ni bt sau y:
- Co th s dung cac mach s khng t lm trong h thng.
- Tn hiu PCM xut phat t tt ca cac ngun tn hiu tng t (audio, video...) co th kt
hp vi tn hiu s liu (v du t may tnh) va truyn chung qua h thng truyn tin s tc
cao (high-speed digital communication system).
- Khi truyn tin qua khoang cach xa, tn hiu PCM co th c khi phuc hoan toan tai
mi tram lp trung gian (intermediate repeater station). Anh hng cua nhiu khng b tch
luy ma ch cn quan tm n nhiu truyn d n gia hai tram lp canh nhau.
- Co th giam anh hng cua nhiu ln tn hiu PCM bng cach s dung cac ky thut ma
hoa c bit, co th sa c hu ht cac loai li.
- Co th giam bt s lp lai khng cn thit hay con goi la d (redundancy) trong ban
tin.
- Tn hiu PCM d lu tr.
Cac u im trn co gia tr vt tri so vi khuyt im chnh cua tn hiu PCM la oi hoi
bng thng truyn dn rng hn tn hiu tng t tng ng nhiu ln.
Ba bc c ban thc hin PCM gm ly mu (sampling), lng t hoa (quantizing) va ma
hoa (encoding) nh trnh bay trn hinh 3.7. Ly mu la bc nhm tao ra tn hiu flat-top
PAM a trnh bay trong bai trc. Bai nay se trnh bay hai bc sau la lng t hoa va ma
hoa.
- Chuong III -


T.h
PCM
flat- top
PAM
- 50 -

T.h tng


Knh





B thu PCM

PCM


t vao
B phat PCM
Loc thng
thp
Ly mu &
gi mu
Lng t
hoa M mc
Ma ho a
Lp khi
phuc
Lp khi
phuc
Lp khi
phuc
Mach tai
tao
Giai ma Loc thng
thp
T.h tng
t ra
PAM
lng t
hoa
PAM
lng t
hoa
Hnh 3.7 H thng truyn dn PCM

3.2.1 Luong tu hoa
Han ch cua h thng truyn tin qua khoang cach xa la s tch luy nhiu, khin cho s suy
giam cht lng tn hiu gia tng theo khoang cach. Co th giam bt anh hng nay bng
cach thc hin lng t hoa (quantizing). o la s xp x hoa cac gia tr cua cac mu tng t
bng cach s dung s mc hu han M.
Hoat ng lng t hoa c minh hoa trn hinh 3.8. Tn hiu m(t) c a vao u vao
cua b lng t hoa, la tn hiu ra cua b lng t hoa . ) t ( m
q
Quan sat trn hnh 3.8, ta thy co dang bc thang bin ri rac, ly cac mc bin
gn vi m(t) la ... m
) t ( m
q
-2
m
-1
m
0
m
1
m
2
m
3
... Ta goi cac mc nay la mc lng t hoa. S
mc nay hu han. chuyn t mc nay sang mc kia tai giao im gia m(t) va
ng chnh gia hai mc. S khac nhau gia m(t) va nhiu hay t tuy thuc vao
khoang cach gia hai mc canh nhau goi la kch thc bc S (step size). Cht lng cua tn
hiu khi phuc co th c cai thin nu giam kch thc bc, tuy nhin luc o s mc tng
ln. Sau y la mt s v du v s mc trong cac h thng thc t: thoai cng cng s dung
256 mc, truyn hnh mau thng mai s dung 512 mc.
) t ( m
q
) t ( m
q
- Chuong III -

m
-2
m
-1
m
0
S/2
S
m
q
(t)
m
2
m
1
m(t)







Hnh 3.8 Minh hoa hoat ng lng t hoa

By gi ta xet n kha nng han ch s tch luy nhiu cua tn hiu lng t hoa. Gia s tn
hiu lng t hoa c truyn n mt tram lp, chu anh hng cua nhiu nn b meo
(distorsion) nh ve trong hinh 3.9 a. Cho tn hiu nay i vao b lng t hoa mt ln na goi
la tai lng t hoa (requantizer), u ra luc nay c ch ra trn hinh 3.9 b. Quan sat trn
hnh ta thy ro rang la li ch xut hin nu bin nhiu vt qua mt na kch thc bc
va nhiu se hoan toan b loai bo nu bin di mt na kch thc bc. Vy bng cach
tng kch thc bc ta co th giam bt s tch luy nhiu. Tuy nhin tng kch thc bc th
se dn n tng sai khac gia tn hiu gc va tn hiu lng t hoa. Sai khac nay goi la nhiu
lng t hoa (quantizing noise). Ta co th tnh c cng sut trung bnh cua nhiu lng t
hoa nh sau:
Goi sai khac gia tn hiu gc va tn hiu lng t hoa mt mc nao o la . Theo s phn
tch hoat ng lng t hoa trn, ta rut ra c dai thay i cua

la:
2 / S 2 / S
Gia s phn b u th ham mt xac sut se la:

=
, 0
2 / S 2 / S , S / 1
) ( f
Vy cng sut trung bnh cua nhiu lng t hoa la:
12
S
d ) ( f m P
2
2 / S
2 / S
2
2
2
q
= = = =

Ro rang la nhiu lng t hoa se tng khi kch thc bc tng va ngc lai.
3.2.2 Ma hoa
S kt hp gia hoat ng ly mu va lng t hoa tao ra tn hiu PAM lng t hoa
(quantized PAM), o la day xung ri rac cach nhau T
S
va co bin cung ri rac hoa vi M
- 51 -
- Chuong III -
mc bin . Trc khi truyn i, mi mu PAM lng t hoa c ma hoa thanh mt t ma
s (digital word) goi la t ma PCM (PCM word). Co th s dung ma Gray hoc ma nh phn
biu din t ma PCM. Goi na la s bit cn thit ma hoa mi t ma PCM. Ca ma Gray
va ma nh phn u la ma c s 2 nn phai chon n sao cho:
1 M log n M log
2 2
+ <
- 52 -








S/2
Nhiu ln
Li
S

(a) (b)
Hnh 3.9 (a) Tn hiu lng t hoa vi nhiu cng (b) Tn hiu sau b tai lng t hoa

Trong thc t th b lng t hoa va ma hoa khng tach ring ma gp chung trong b chuyn
i tng t - s ADC.
Co ba phng phap thng dung chuyn i tng t - s la phng phap m (counting)
hay ma hoa theo dc (ramp), phng phap ni tip (serial) hay xp x lin tip (successive
approximation) hay con goi la phan hi (feedback) va phng phap song song (parallel).
Trong b ma hoa m trn hinh 3.10, khi lnh ma hoa (encode command) phat ra th b ly
mu thc hin ly mu, mt in ap dc (dang rng ca) c tao ra va b m nh phn bt
u m. in ap u ra cua b tao rng ca lin tuc so sanh vi in ap cua mu tng t.
Khi in ap rng ca bng vi in ap cua mu th lnh oc (read command) iu khin oc
ra gia tr nh phn cua b m, y chnh la t ma PCM. Luc nay b m va b tao rng ca
reset v gia tr 0 va chun b cho mu tip theo. Phng phap nay ch yu cu t linh kin
nhng tc ma hoa b han ch bi tc b m. IC chuyn i A-D hiu Intersil ICL
7126 s dung ky thut nay.
Co th cai tin phng phap m bng cach khng s dung b tao in a p rng ca ma thay
bng mt b tch phn chen gia b ly mu va so sanh. in ap ra cua b ly mu c ly
tch phn, rng cua xung ra b tch phn t l vi gia tr in ap cua mu. u im cua
phng phap nay la tuyn tnh va chnh xac rt cao, loai tr nhiu tt, n gian va kinh
t. Khuyt im chnh la thi gian chuyn i A-D dai.
B ma hoa ni tip trn hinh 3.11 hoat ng bng cach so sanh lin tip in ap cua mu
tng t vi mt loat cac in ap th (trial voltage). Cac in ap th nay phu thuc vao kt
- Chuong III -
qua so sanh trc o la dng hay m (tng ng vi in ap cua mu vao ln hn hay nho
hn in ap th ) tng ln hay giam i mt gia tr bc (step). Gia tr bc c chon u
tin ln nht sau o giam nho dn bng mt na bc trc, nh vy qua trnh th se nhanh
chong hi tu. in ap th c tao ra t b chia in ap (voltage divider) vi cac chuyn
mach on-off (on-off swich) c iu khin bi mt mach logic s (digital logic circuit). Sau
khi qua trnh th hi tu, gia tr t trn chuyn mach c oc ra chnh la t ma PCM.


- 53 -











T.h
PCM
Reset
Ly mu & gi mu
So sanh
Tao in ap dc
B m nh phn
Chuyn song
song/ni tip
Stop
m s
Lnh
oc
Clock
L nh ma
hoa
T.h
tng t
Hnh 3.10 S b ma hoa m

T.h
PCM
Ly mu & gi mu
So sanh
Chuyn song
song/ni tip
m nh
phn
Chia ap &
chuyn mach
Logic s
Lnh
oc
L nh ma
hoa
T.h
tng t









Hnh 3.11 S b ma hoa ni tip
- Chuong III -
chnh xac cua phng phap phu thuc vao chnh xac cua cac in ap th, tc ma
hoa b han ch bi tc cua chuyn mach. Phng phap nay yu cu nhiu linh kin hn
phng phap m nhng chnh xac hn. IC chuyn i A-D hiu National Semiconductor
0804-8bit s dung ky thut nay.
giam thi gian chuyn i A-D, co th thay mt b so sanh trn y bng nhiu b so
sanh hoat ng song song nh trn hinh 3.12. B ma hoa kiu nay goi la ma hoa song song.

44
(n-1) b so sanh
T.h
PCM
Ly mu &
gi mu

Chuyn
song
song
sang
ni
tip
T.h
tng t
L nh ma
hoa
m nh
phn
Lo


gic


s
1
2
n-1
Hnh 3.12 S b ma hoa song song
Lnh
oc








Mi b so sanh u co in ap tham chiu (reference) ring. u ra cua tt ca cac b so sanh
c a ng th i n mach logic s xac nh t ma nh phn ra (chnh la t ma PCM)
tng ng vi mi mu tng t vao. Phng phap nay at c tc ma hoa cao nht
nhng tn nhiu linh kin nht so vi hai phng phap trn, cn s dung n 2
n
- 1 b so
sanh. IC chuyn i A-D hiu RCA CA 3318-8bit s dung ky thut nay.
Tt ca cac IC k trn u cho t ma PCM ra dang song song. truyn i trn knh thng
tin cn phai chuyn i sang ni tip. iu nay c thc hin nh IC chuyn i song song -
ni tip goi la chip SIO (Serial-Input-Output). Chip SIO gm mt thanh ghi dch cha d liu
song song (thng 8 hay 16 ng vao). D liu c dch ra cui cung cua thanh ghi
tng bit mt (bit-by-bit), ra theo mt ng ra n tao ra d liu ni tip. Cac chip SIO
thng hoat ng ch song cng (full-duplex) nn mi chip co hai thanh ghi, mi thanh
ghi cho mt hng: mt thanh ghi chuyn i ni tip - song song cho hng ma hoa PCM,
mt thanh ghi chuyn i song song - ni tip cho hng giai ma PCM. Co ba loai chip SIO
la: b thu phat khng ng b van nng UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter), b thu phat ng b van nng USRT (Universal Synchronous Receiver
Transmitter), b thu phat ng b - khng ng b van nng USART (Universal
Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter). UART thu phat d liu ni tip khng
ng b, USRT thu phat d liu ni tip ng b, USART kt hp UART va USRT vao
trong cung mt chip.
u thu, tn hiu PCM c giai ma tr lai thanh tn hiu tng t nh b chuyn i s -
tng t DAC. Trc ht, tn hiu PCM c chuyn i sang dang song song s dung cac
- 54 -
- Chuong III -
chip SIO nh a noi trn. Mi t ma song song c chuyn i thanh mt gia tr cua mu
tng t xp x vi bn phat nh mt b giai ma. Dang tn hiu u ra cua b giai ma chnh la
PAM lng t hoa. Tn hiu PAM nay c lam mn nh mt b loc thng thp khi phuc
(low-pass reconstruction filter) hay con goi la b loc lam mn (smoothing filter) tao lai tn
hiu tng t (xem hinh 3.7 phn b thu PCM).
3.3 Mf s dc d|m cuo fn h|u PCM
3.3.1 Bng thng cua tin hiu PCM
Goi R la s bit truyn i trong mt giy cua tn hiu PCM. R hay c goi la tc bit (n
v tnh la bit/s hay bps). Goi n la s bit cua mt t ma PCM; f
s
la tn s ly mu (chnh la s
mu trong mt giy). Co th d dang tnh c R t n va f
S
nh sau:
S
nf R =
V du i vi thoai cng cng th n = 8, f
S
= 8kHz, do o R = 64 kbps.
Gia rng bng thng va tc bit co mt mi quan h. By gi ta se tm mi quan h
nay. Hinh 3.13 minh hoa tc bit ti a cua tn hiu PCM trong hai trng hp thng dung.
o la trng hp hnh 3.13 a va hnh 3.13 b. hnh 3.13 a, s dung tron mt bit la T
b

biu din mt bit, hnh 3.13 b ch s dung mt na bit biu din mt bit, na con lai tr
v gia tr tham chiu.
Ta nhn thy hnh 3.13 a, mt bit tng ng vi mt ln tn hiu thay i mc trong khi
hnh 3.13 b th mt bit tng ng vi hai ln thay i mc. Ta biu din s thay i mc
bng tn hiu sin. T y thy rng hnh 3.13 a, ta co th truyn i tc bit la 2 bps trn
Hz, hnh 3.13 b th tc nay ch la 1 bps trn Hz. Ta goi s bit truyn trong mt giy
trong mt Hz la hiu qua s dung bng thng (bandwidth efficiency).

T
b
T
b
(b) (a)




Hnh 3.13 Tc bit ti a cua tn hiu PCM

Qua phn tch trn ta rut ra bng thng ti thiu cua tn hiu PCM phai la:
S PCM
nf
2
1
R
2
1
B = (trng hp hnh 3.13 a)
S PCM
nf R B = (trng hp hnh 3.13 b)
Ta a bit tranh chng ph th tn s ly mu phai la vi B la bng thng cua B 2 f
S

- 55 -
- Chuong III -
tn hiu tng t tng ng (gia thit tn hiu co bng thng hu han).Vy bng thng cua tn
hiu PCM la:
nB B
PCM
(trng hp hnh 3.13 a)
nB 2 B
PCM
(trng hp hnh 3.13 b)
Vy bng thng cua tn hiu PCM ln hn bng thng cua tn hiu tng t tng ng. y
la khuyt im chnh cua h thng truyn tin s dung PCM.
Bang 3.1 a ra quan h gia s mc lng t hoa M, dai t ma PCM n va bng thng
cua tn hiu PCM tnh theo bng thng cua tn hiu tng t tng ng.
Vi du: i vi tn hiu thoai, CCITT quy nh tn s ly mu la 8 kHz va dai t ma la 8
bit. Vy tc cua tn hiu thoai s la 64 kbps. Do o, bng thng ti thiu cua tn hiu thoai
s la 32 kHz, ln gp 8 ln so vi bng thng cua tn hiu thoai tng t la 4 kHz.
3.3.2 Anh huong cua nhiu ln tin hiu PCM
Tn hiu tng t khi phuc tai u thu cua h thng PCM chu anh hng cua nhiu nn b
meo. Co hai loai nhiu chnh anh hng ln tn hiu PCM la:
- Nhiu lng t hoa gy bi b lng t hoa M mc bn ma hoa PCM
- Li bit (bit error) tn hiu PCM khi phuc gy bi nhiu knh truyn (channel noise).
Gia s tn hiu tng t vao co PDF ng u trong dai t -V n +V, tn hiu PCM c
iu ch kiu FSK ri truyn qua mt h thng s co ty l li bit la P
e
, s mc lng t hoa
u la M, ngi ta a chng minh c:
Ty s cng sut nh cua tn hiu khi phuc (recovered peak signal power) trn cng sut
trung bnh cua nhiu (average noise power) la:
( )
e
2
2
out pk
P ) 1 M ( 4 1
M 3
N / S
+
=
Nu tn hiu vao at mc ti a th ty s cng sut trung bnh cua tn hiu trn cng sut
trung bnh cua nhiu la:
( )
e
2
2
out pk out
P ) 1 M ( 4 1
M
) N / S (
3
1
N / S
+
= =
Trong cac h thng thc t, P
e
nho khng ang k nh qua trnh ma hoa knh co th sa
c hu ht li bit. Gia s khng co li bit th ty s S/N nh va S/N trung bnh ch phu
thuc vao nhiu lng t hoa:
( ) ( )
2
out
2
out pk
M N / S , M 3 N / S = = .
Gia tr cua cac ty s S/N nay tnh bng dB cho trong bang 3.1.
- 56 -
- Chuong III -
- 57 -
T quan im thc tin, nhiu lng t hoa u ra b giai ma PCM co th phn thanh bn
loai phu thuc vao iu kin hoat ng. Bn loai o la nhiu qua tai (overload noise), nhiu
ngu nhin (random noise), nhiu hat (granular noise) va nhiu rung (hunting noise).
Nhiu qua tai xut hin khi in ap nh cua tn hiu tng t vt qua gia tr in ap nh
thit k. Luc nay, tn hiu khi phuc u thu se co nh bng phng gn vi gia tr nh
thit k. Cac nh phng nay lam cho tn hiu khi phuc b meo, tao ra cac thanh phn hai
khng mong mun. V du meo nghe c trong h thng in thoai PCM khi co cac mc
in ap cao xut hin nh m quay s, bn, tn hiu nhc may.
Nhiu ngu nhin tao ra bi li lng t hoa thay i ngu nhin. Nu in ap tn hiu tng
t vao khng u ln th ty s S/N se b giam. Nhiu ngu nhin nghe nh mt ting rt.
Nhiu hat xut hin khi in ap cua tn hiu tng t giam tng i nho so vi gia tr thit
k, lam cho tn hiu lng t hoa gn nh bng phng mc 0. Nhiu hat nghe nh ting lao
xao. Co th giam nhiu hat bng cach tng s mc lng t hoa, ngha la tng tc bit cua
tn hiu PCM hoc la s dung lng t hoa khng u se trnh bay trong muc sau.

S mc lng t Chiu dai t ma PCM Bng thng cua tn hiu PCM
(S/N)
pk out
(S/N)
out
2 1 2B 10.8 6.0
4 2 4B 16.8 12.0
8 3 6B 22.8 18.1
16 4 8B 28.9 24.1
32 5 10B 34.9 30.1
64 6 12B 40.9 36.1
128 7 14B 46.9 42.1
256 8 16B 52.9 48.2
512 9 18B 59.0 54.2
1024 10 20B 65.0 60.2
2048 11 22B 71.0 66.2
4096 12 24B 77.0 72.2
8192 13 26B 83.0 78.3
16384 14 28B 89.1 84.3
32768 15 30B 95.1 90.3
65536 16 32B 101.1 96.3
Bang 3.1 ( B la bng thng cua tn hiu tng t vao b lng t hoa)
- Chuong III -
Nhiu rung xut hin khi in ap cua tn hiu tng t gn nh la mt hng s nm gia hai
mc lng t hoa canh nhau, gy ra mt tn hiu sin khng mong mun tn s bng mt
na tn s ly mu u ra cua h thng PCM.
Gia s ta co th vit lai cac ty s S/N tnh bng dB nh sau:
n
2 M =
+ = n 02 , 6 ) N / S (
dB

y n la s bit trong t ma PCM, = 4,77 i vi S/N nh va = 0 i vi S/N trung
bnh. T y ta thy c tng thm 1 bit trong t ma PCM th S/N se tng c 6.02 dB.
Thc t th tn hiu vao khng at mc ti a. Gia tr chnh xac c chng minh la:
) x / V lg( 20 77 . 4
rms
=
y V la gia tr nh cua b lng t hoa va x
rms
la gia tr hiu dung cua tn hiu vao. Nhn
xet rng la mt ham theo mc tn hiu vao. Do o ty s (S/N) khng ng u.
3.4 Luong fu hco vo mo hco khng du
T cng thc tnh ta thy cng sut trung bnh cua nhiu lng t hoa phu thuc vao kch
thc bc S. Nu kch thc bc khng thay i th ty s S/N se nho i vi tn hiu co
bin nho va ln i vi tn hiu co bin ln. at c ty s S/N ng u ma khng
lam tng s mc lng t hoa th tin hanh lng t hoa khng ng u (nouniform
quantizing) vi kch thc bc lng t hoa thay i: kch thc bc nho i vi tn hiu
co bin nho va ngc lai. S thay i kch thc bc rt hu hiu i vi tn hiu thoai,
la tn hiu co 50% thi gian tn ta i vi bin nho ch bng 1/4 gia tr hiu dung. Hinh
3.14a la mt v du v thay i kch thc bc .
q
P
thc hin lng t hoa khng u, trc ht cho tn hiu tng t i qua mt b khuch
ai nen phi tuyn goi la b nen (compressor), ri vao b ma hoa PCM s dung lng t hoa
u. Goi tn hiu vao b nen la s
1
(t), tn hiu ra b nen la s
2
(t), quan h gia s
1
(t) va s
2
(t)
c Smith tm ra vao nm 1957 nh sau:
) 1 ln(
) ) t ( s 1 ln(
) t ( s
1
2
+
+
=
y gia tr nh cua s
1
(t) va s
2
(t) la 1 , la hng s dng. Phng phap nen nh th nay
goi la nen lut ( -law). Mang in thoai mt s nc nh Hoa Ky, Canada, Nht s
dung nen lut vi = 255.

Mt lut nen khac goi la lut A (A-law), s dung chu yu chu u, do Cattermole tm ra
nm 1969:
- 58 -
- Chuong III -

<
+
+

+
=
1 ) t ( s
A
1
,
A ln 1
) ) t ( s A ln( 1
A
1
) t ( s 0 ,
A ln 1
) t ( s A
) t ( s
1
1
1
1
2

Hinh 3.14 b ve c tuyn nen lut A. Gia tr A in hnh la A = 87,6.
Vi A = 87.6, Dunlop va Smith a chng minh rng: so vi lng t hoa u th ty s (S/N)
tng c 24 dB khi A / 1 x < va tng 38 dB khi A / 1 x > . Vi lut , ty s (S/N) tng
hn mt chut so vi lut A.

Ca lut nen A va u co quan h vao-ra la quan h loga. Do vy, c tuyn nen lut A va
u co dang gn ging nhau. o la c tuyn dang loga.

- 59 -



















(a)
Vao
Khng u
u
- 1.0
- 1.0
1.0
1.0 0
A=87.6
A=1
A=5
(b)
Ra
Hnh 3.14 c tuyn nen - gian
(a) c tuyn lng t hoa M=8 (b) c tuyn lut A
- Chuong III -
Ngc vi qua trnh nen bn phat, bn thu thc hin qua trnh giai nen hay con goi la gian
nh b gian (expandor). c tuyn gian la ao ngc cua c tuyn nen. Nh vy, c tuyn
gian la c tuyn i loga.
S kt hp gia b nen va b gian goi chung la b nen - gian (compandor).
qua trnh nen - gian khng lam anh hng n cht lng cua tn hiu khi phuc th y
phai la mt qua trnh tuyn tnh, ngha la tng hai c tuyn nen va gian phai la mt ng
thng. iu nay c thc hin trong thc t bng cach xp x tuyn tnh hoa tng oan. Ca
hai lut A va u ap dung phng phap nay.
y ta xet lut A, c tuyn nen lut A c xp x hoa bng mt ng gp khuc 13 oan
(segment) nh trn hinh 3.15: co sau oan cho phn dng t 1 8 / 2 + + , sau oan cho
phn m hoan toan i xng t 1 8 / 2 va mt oan gia t 8 / 2 8 / 2 + .
ITU a ra chun ma hoa G.711 ma hoa tn hiu thoai, s mc lng t hoa s dung la M
= 256, dai t ma PCM la n = 8, trong o co mt bit u tin trong s cao nht la bit du
va 7 bit con lai ch gia tr tuyt i. Quy c bit du la 0 ch gia tr + cua mu tn hiu va
la 1 ch gia tr - cua mu tn hiu. Trong 7 bit ch gia tr tuyt i th 3 bit u tao thanh t
ma ch oan (co 8 oan cho mi phn + hay -), 4 bit cui cung tao thanh t ma ch bc
lng t hoa (co 16 bc lng t hoa trong mi oan).
Bang 3.2 nu cu th v vn na y vi lut nen chon trnh bay y la lut A = 87.6.

- 60 -









1.0 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16
1/8
8
6
7
5
4
3
2
1
7/8
6/8
5/8
1.0
4/8
3/8
2/8
0
Hnh 3.15 c tuyn xp x tuyn tnh hoa lut A- 13 oan (goc 1/4 th nht)
T bang 3.2, ta thy dai t ma thoai PCM khi lng t hoa u la 13 bit a c nen
xung con 8 bit khi lng t hoa khng u.
Thc t co hai thut toan thc hin ma hoa khng u. Ta xet hai thut toan nay vi lut A =
87.6. Goi 3 bit oan la a, 4 bit bc lng t la b, x la gia tr lng t hoa u cua mu ri
rac.
a- Thut toan 1:
- Chuong III -
Ma hoa:
- Xac nh bit du: la 0 khi x dng va la 1 khi x m.
- Xac nh a: a nho nht thoa ) 7 a 0 ( 2 . 32 x
a
<

Dai bin vao Kch thc bc Ma oan Ma bc lng t hoa S th t t ma Bin ra b giai ma
0-1
2-3
...
30-31
2 000 0000
0001
...
1111
0
1
...
15
1
3
...
31
32-33
...
62-63
2 001 0000
...
1111
16
...
31
33
...
63
64-67
...
124-127
4 010 0000
...
1111
32
...
47
66
...
126
128-135
...
248-255
8 011 0000
...
1111
48
...
63
132
...
252
256-271
...
496-511
16 100 0000
...
1111
64
...
79
264
...
504
512-543
...
992-1023
32 101 0000
...
1111
80
...
95
528
...
1008
1024-1087
...
1984-2043
64 110 0000
...
1111
96
...
111
1056
...
2016
2048-2176
...
3968-4095
128 111 0000
...
1111
112
...
127
2112
...
4032
Bang 3.2
- Xac nh b: b nho nht thoa ) 15 b 0 (
0 a ), 1 b ( 2
0 a ), 1 b ( 2
r
a

+
= +
<
y

=
=
0 a , 2 . 16 x
0 a , x
r
a
- 61 -
- Chuong III -
Giai ma:
Gia tr tuyt i cua mu khi phuc u ra cua b giai ma la:

+
= +
=
0 a ), 2 / 33 b ( 2
0 a , 1 b 2
y
a
.
Bit du phai c gi nguyn khng thay i.
Vi du: Mt mu lng t hoa co gia tr la +121. Ta xac nh c bit du la 0, a = 2, r = 57,
b = 14. Vy t ma PCM 8 bit la: 0010 1110. Nu truyn t ma nay i th bn giai ma se khi
phuc c gia tr tuyt i la: 2
2
(14+33/2) = 122.
b- Thut toan 2:
Ma hoa:
Ta thc hin ma hoa u thng thng, c t ma 13 bit. Sau o thc hin nen s 13 bit
xung con 8 bit. Thc s ta nen s 12 bit xung con 7 bit v bit cao nht la bit du phai c
gi nguyn. Bang 3.3 trnh bay thut toan nen.
Bang 3.3 (x la bit bt ky)
- 62 -

1 a b c d x x x x x x x 1 1 1 a b c d
0 1 a b c d x x x x x x 1 1 0 a b c d
0 0 1 a b c d x x x x x 1 0 1 a b c d
0 0 0 1 a b c d x x x x 1 0 0 a b c d
0 0 0 0 1 a b c d x x x 0 1 1 a b c d
0 0 0 0 0 1 a b c d x x 0 1 0 a b c d
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a b c d x 0 0 1 a b c d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a b c d x 0 0 0 a b c d
Bang 3.4

1 1 1 a b c d 1 a b c d 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 a b c d 0 1 a b c d 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 a b c d 0 0 1 a b c d 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 a b c d 0 0 0 1 a b c d 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 a b c d 0 0 0 0 1 a b c d 1 0 0
0 1 0 a b c d 0 0 0 0 0 1 a b c d 1 0
0 0 1 a b c d 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a b c d 1
0 0 0 a b c d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a b c d 1
7 bit
12 bit
12 bit 7 bit
- Chuong III -
Giai ma:
Ta thc hin giai ma u thng thng, c t ma 8 bit. Sau o thc hin gian s 8 bit
thanh 13 bit. Thc s ta gian s 7 bit thanh 12 bit v bit cao nht la bit du phai c gi
nguyn. Bang 3.4 trnh bay thut toan gian.
Ta co th lam lai v du trn va se thy kt qua tng t.
3.5 Coc ky fhuf s hco g|om bng fhng
Bng thng (bandwidth) la mt tai nguyn thng tin quy gia va co han. Tt ca cac ng
truyn vt ly (dy xon i, cap ng truc, cap si quang, vi ba...) u ch cho truyn tn hiu
qua trong mt dai hu han cua tn s. V vy cn phai co bin pha p s dung bng thng hiu
qua, ngha la lam sao truyn c nhiu knh thng tin nht vi mt bng thng sn co. iu
nay tng ng vi tm phng phap giam bng thng cua tn hiu truyn trn knh.
Nh a phn tch, ta thy: trong mt h thng PCM thng thng, cac mu ri rac cua tn
hiu vao c ma hoa mt cach c lp vi nhau. Vy, h thng PCM thng thng co kha
nng ma hoa nhng tn hiu bt ky co ph khng vt qua mt na tn s ly mu. Song
trong thc t, cac tn hiu thng tin nh ting noi, hnh anh, m thanh... co s tng quan
(correlation) ang k gia cac mu canh nhau. S tng quan nay lam cho tn hiu co d
(redundancy). ti t kim bng thng truyn dn, co th thc hin cac ky thut s hoa khac
hiu qua hn PCM. Cac ky thut nay quan tm n s tng quan cua tn hiu, s dung d
lam giam tc bit, tc la giam bng thng.
Bai nay trnh bay mt s ky thut giam bng thng cua tn hiu, bao gm: PCM delta, PCM
vi sai DPCM (Differential PCM) , DPCM thch nghi (Adaptive DPCM), iu ch delta DM
(Delta Modulation) va iu ch delta thch nghi ADM (Adaptive DM).
3.5.1 Ky thut PCM delta
PCM delta la mt ky thut n gian giam bng thng cua tn hiu PCM. Thay v ma hoa
va truyn i toan b gia tr cua mu, PCM delta ch ma hoa va truyn i chnh lch gia
cac mu ca nh nhau (difference in adjacent sample values). Thng thng chnh lch nay
nho hn gia tr cua toan b mu nn ma hoa lch se s dung t bit trong mt t ma hn so
vi PCM thng thng.

Delta PCM
+
-
Ly mu
Tr T
Ma hoa
PCM
(a)
Giai ma
PCM
Tr T
(b)





Hnh 3.16 B phat - thu PCM delta
(a) Ma hoa PCM delta (b) Giai ma PCM delta
- 63 -
- Chuong III -
Hinh 3.16 trnh bay s khi cua b phat - thu PCM delta. Bn phat va bn thu u s
dung b tr vi thi gian tr T=1/f
s
, b tr nay ong vai tro nh b nh mt mu. Bn phat,
hiu cua gia tr mu hin tai va gia tr mu trc o chnh la chnh lch c a n b
ma hoa PCM thng thng. Bn thu, gia tr mu hin tai c khi phuc bng cach s dung
gia tr mu trc o cng vi gia tr chnh lch nhn c.
3.5.2 Ky thut DPCM
Ky thut DPCM thc hin ma hoa trn c s PCM nhng co quan tm n s tng quan
gia cac mu gn nhau. DPCM s dung thut toan d oan (predict) d oan gia tr cua
mu tng lai cua tn hiu, ri i cho n khi gia tr cua mu th c s xut hin kim tra,
sau o truyn i tn hiu biu din sai khac gia gia tr d oan vi gia tr thc s. Sai khac
nay biu din cho phn khng d oan c. Theo cach o, DPCM cho phep ma hoa vi
dai t ma giam i, bng thng cua tn hiu giam i.
Gia tr cua mu tng lai c tnh t gia tr cua mu hin tai va cua cac mu qua kh bng
b d oan (predictor). o la mt b loc s vi cac b tr va b nhn nh trnh bay trong
hinh 3.17. y la s b d oan cp N: mu tng lai c tnh t N mu trc o.

- 64 -





) kT ( g
~

c
N
c
2
c
1
.....
.....
T T T
) kT ( g
Hnh 3.17 B d oan dung trong DPCM
Hinh 3.18 a la s b phat DPCM. ) t ( g la tn hiu tng t vao, la tn hiu ly
mu (tn hiu PAM), la li gia gia tr thc s cua va gia tr d oan
t cac mu trc. Li nay c lng t hoa thanh
) kT ( g
) kT ( ) kT ( g ) kT ( g
) kT (
q
va ma hoa thanh tn hiu DPCM
truyn i. Tn hiu vao cua b d oan la tn hiu d oan trc o c sa
sai bng cach cng thm li d oan
) kT ( g
~
) kT ( g
) kT (
q
. Hinh 3.18 b la s b thu DPCM, nguyn ly
lam vic tng t b thu PCM delta, thay b tr bng b d oan y ht nh bn phat DPCM.
Co th thy PCM delta s dung b tr nh la b d oan cp 1.
Ky thut DPCM thch nghi (ADPCM) la mt phin ban phc tap hn cua ky thut DPCM.
Trong ADPCM, cac h s d oan (tc la cac h s c
1
, c
2
, ... , c
N
) khng c nh ma thay i
phu hp vi s thay i cua cac s liu thng k cua tn hiu. Tt nhin, gia tr cua cac h s
nay phai c truyn i trn ng truyn. ITU a ra chun ma hoa ADPCM 32 kbps la
G.721. B ma hoa ADPCM ly tn hiu PCM nen 64 kbps (chun G.711) va chuyn thanh tn
hiu 32 kbps. B ma hoa dung t ma 15 mc 4 bit truyn i gia tr sai khac c lng t
hoa gia tn hiu vao va tn hiu c lng. V mt cht lng th cht lng cua tn hiu
- Chuong III -
thoai ADPCM 32 kbps ch thp hn mt chut so vi PCM 64 kbps. Nhng v li ch th ro
rang ADPCM 32 kbps cho phep tng gp i s knh thoai so vi PCM 64 kbps vi cung
mt bng thng truyn dn. ITU con a ra chun G.726 va G.727 cho phep tc bit la 16
n 40 kbps.

(kT)
g(t)
) kT ( g
) kT ( g
~
) kT (
q

+
-
Ly mu
D oan
Ma hoa
PCM
(a)
) t ( g ) t ( g
~

) kT ( g
) kT ( g
~
) kT (
q

DPCM
Giai ma
PCM
D oan
Loc lam
mn
Lng t
hoa
DPCM
(b)









Hnh 3.18 B phat - thu DPCM
(a) Ma hoa DPCM (b) Giai ma DPCM
3.5.3 Ky thut DM
- 65 -
]
Ky thut DM la mt trng hp c bit cua DPCM, trong o mi t ma ch co mt bit nh
phn, ngha la ch co hai mc lng t hoa M = 2. Bit duy nht nay ch ra s tng hay giam
cua mu sau so vi mu trc. S b phat DM co th thc hin t s b phat DPCM
bng cach thay b lng t hoa bng b so sanh nh ch ra trong hinh 3.19 a. B d oan
n gian la b tr nh trong PCM delta, d oan mu sau bng vi mu trc, ngha la
. y khng cn s dung b ma hoa nh trong DPCM v tn hiu
u ra cua b so sanh a co dang s mong mun. Hinh 3.19 b la s b thu DM.
[ T ) 1 k ( g
~
) kT ( g =
Hinh 3.20 ve dang song cua tn hiu DM. Cung nh PCM thng thng, tn hiu DM chu
tac ng cua nhiu lng t hoa: tn hiu vao tng t khac vi tn hiu ma hoa mt khoang
khng vt qua kch thc mt bc lng t hoa.
Tuy nhin, nhiu luc b DM khng th theo kp nhng bin i nhanh cua tn hiu vao va v
vy tn hiu ma hoa cach xa tn hiu vao mt khoang ln hn kch thc bc. Khi xay ra
iu o, ta noi b DM b qua tai theo dc (slope overload).
Ta d dang nhn thy nhiu lng t hoa se giam nu giam kch thc bc, trong khi o
nhiu qua tai theo dc se giam nu tng kch thc bc. gi cho hai loai nhiu nay
nm trong pham vi cho phep, ngi ta phai ly mu vi tn s ly mu ln hn tn s ly
mu s dung trong PCM, DPCM.

- Chuong III -


- 66 -







g(kT)
g(t)
= ) kT (
q

Ly mu
Tr T
(a)
Loc lam
mn
Tr T
+
-
(b)
Hnh 3.19 B phat - thu DM
(a) B phat DM (b) B thu DM
Khi tn hiu vao gn nh la mt hng s th tn hiu ma hoa dao ng xung quanh mc tn
hiu vao, gy ra tn s khng mong mun bng mt na tn s ly mu. Luc nay, nhiu
lng t hoa tr thanh nhiu ri (idle noise). V tn s cc ai cua tn hiu nho hn tn s ly
mu nhiu ln nn co th loai bo hoan toan nhiu ri bng b loc thng thp khi phuc (loc
lam mn).

q
(kT)
g(kT)
g(t)

-
T

Start-up
Nhiu ri
Qua tai theo
dc
Nhiu lng t ho a
Hnh 3.20 Dang song cua tn hiu DM va minh hoa cac loai nhiu
Qua phn tch trn y ta thy mc du DM co giam c dai t ma nhng tn s ly mu
lai ln hn tn s ly mu dung trong DPCM. V vy, u im chnh cua DM so vi DPCM
khng phai la s tit kim bng thng ma la gia thanh thp. at c iu nay la do trong
DM khng s dung cac b ma hoa/ giai ma va b d oan phc tap c thay bng b tr n
gian.
- Chuong III -
3.5.4 Ky thut ADM
gi cho ca hai nhiu lng t hoa va nhiu qua tai theo dc nm trong pham vi cho
phep ma khng tng tn s ly mu ln nhiu ln nh trong DM, ngi ta s dung ky thut
DM thch nghi ADM. y, kch thc bc thay i theo tn hiu vao, kch thc bc ln
khi co nhiu qua tai theo dc va nho khi co nhiu lng t hoa.
Hinh 3.21 trnh bay s khi cua b phat ADM. Khi khuch ai iu khin cho
kch thc bc thay i, kch thc nay c biu din bi cac xung co bin hng s
. Kch thc bc thay i phu thuc vao cac gia tr qua kh cua . V du, nu
trong mt vai mu canh nhau th co th suy ra rng
) kT ( G

q

+ =
q
) t ( g ang tng nhanh hn va
co kha nng khng bam theo kp. Luc nay h thng ADM tng kch thc bc ln
giam nhiu qua tai theo dc. Ngc lai, nu
) kT ( g
~
q
thay i lun phin gia va +
th suy ra rng ) t ( g thay i chm va nhiu qua tai theo dc khng xut hin. Luc nay
giam kch thc bc giam nhiu lng t hoa. Hinh 3.22 minh hoa ca hai trng hp
nay. Thut toan iu khin thay i kch thc bc n gian la:
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [

= ]
=
=
T ) 1 k ( ) kT ( , C / T ) 1 k ( G
T ) 1 k ( ) kT ( , C T ) 1 k ( G
) kT ( G
q q
q q
vi C la hng s ln hn 1.

g(kT) g(t)
= ) kT (
q
Ly mu
Tr T
+
-
G(kT)
iu khin kch
thc bc





Hnh 3.21 B phat ADM
g(t)
Tn hiu bin
i nhanh
Tn hiu bin
i chm
Tng kch
thc bc
Giam kch
thc bc

q
(kT)







Hnh 3.22 Dang song tn hiu ADM minh hoa kich thc bc thay i
- 67 -
- Chuong III -
- 68 -
H thng ADM in hnh at c ty s S/N ln hn DM t 8-14 dB. ADM co th hoat ng
tc bit thp hn DM nh la 32 kbps hay 16 kbps cho thoai.
Ngoai ra, ADM con co th thc hin vi kch thc bc thay i lin tuc CVSD
(Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation), y kch thc bc thay i lin tuc ch
khng phai ri rac nh trong DM. V du nh IC hiu MC3417 cua Motorola thay i kch
thc bc theo 3 bit cui cung cua day ma hoa.
3.6 |nh dong fn h|u s
Cac bai trc a xet n qua trnh chuyn i tn hiu t tng t qua s. Bai nay se ban n
vn biu din tn hiu s o nh th nao cho phu hp truyn qua knh thng tin. y
chnh la vn nh dang tn hiu s (digital signal format). Cac bit nh phn 0 va 1 co th
c biu din di nhiu dang khac nhau goi la ma ng (line code).
3.6.1 Cac yu t cn xem xet khi chon ma duong
Vic la chon loai ma ng nao cho phu hp phai c da vao mt hoc nhiu cac yu t
di y:
- Thanh phn mt chiu DC: i vi cac ng truyn kt ni AC nh dung tu in, bin
ap..., nu trong thanh phn cua ma ng co cha thanh phn DC th thanh phn nay se b
ngn lai gy meo tn hiu thu. Hn na, nu truyn qua ng truyn bng kim loai, thanh
phn DC se lam nong dy khin cho suy hao tng ln.
- Bng thng: Bng thng cua ma ng cang nho cang tt, v se giup tit kim c
bng thng.
- Ty l li bit BER (Bit Error Rate): BER c nh ngha la s bit thu b li trn tng s
bit truyn i trong mt n v thi gian. Ro rang BER cang nho cang tt.
- Tnh trong sut (transparancy): o la c tnh mt ky t, mt bit, mt nhom bit nao o
co th truyn i va nhn lai c. Nu ma khng co tnh trong sut th co kha nng mt nhom
bit hay mt ky t nao o b chn lai tai mt tram thu trn ng truyn va khng n c
ch cui cung, hoc co th mt dong bit nao o b mt tn hiu ng h.
- Kha nng d dang khi phuc ng h: Mt u im ni bt cua thng tin s so vi
thng tin tng t la kha nng khi phuc tn hiu tai cac tram lp trn ng truyn, lam cho
cht lng tn hiu s khng b suy giam theo khoang cach. Hai cng vic chnh cua tram lp
la khuch ai bin cua tn hiu va khi phuc tn hiu ng h tai tc bit tn hiu
n tram lp co th c ly mu vao thi im thch hp.
- Kha nng t phat hin li: y hiu kha nng t phat hin li la cn c vao quy lut
ma hoa phat hin li ch khng phai a thm d vao ma.
- n gian trong vic thc hin ma hoa va giai ma.
3.6.2 Cac loai ma duong ph bin
Co hai loai ma ng chnh la RZ (Return-to-Zero) va NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero). Vi ma
- Chuong III -
- 69 -
RZ, dang song tr v mc in ap tham chiu (thng la 0 V) trong mt na bit. Ma NRZ
th khng nh vy, tc la khng quay tr v mc in ap tham chiu.
Trong mi loai, ma ng lai c phn loai tip da theo nguyn tc c dung n nh
cac mc in ap biu din bit PCM. Theo y, co cac loai ma ng ph bin la: Unipolar
NRZ va Unipolar RZ, Polar NRZ va Polar RZ, Bipolar NRZ va Bipolar RZ. Ngoai ra, RZ con
cac loai nh Manchester, HDB3 (High Density Bipolar with maximum of 3 consecutive
zero)..., NRZ con co loai CMI (Coded Mark Inversion)...
a- Ma Unipolar: bit 1 biu din bi mc in ap cao (+V) - goi la mark, bit 0 biu din
bi mc 0 - goi la space.
b- Ma Polar: bit 1 biu din bi mc cao (+V), bit 0 biu din bi mc ngc lai (-V).
Ma Unipolar va Polar thng dung trong hu ht cac mach s.
c- Ma Bipolar: dung 3 mc in ap biu din hai loai bit nh phn nn ma nay con
c goi la ma gia 3 cc tnh. Dong bit 1 biu din bi s thay i mc lun phin
(+V, -V), bit 0 biu din bi mc 0. Ma Bipolar RZ c dung ph bin hn Bipolar
NRZ. Ma Bipolar nay con c goi la AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion). Ma AMI c
dung ph bin trong giao tip 64 kbps.
d- Ma Manchester: bit 1 biu din bi mc +V trong mt na u va -V trong mt na
sau cua bit, bit 0 biu din bi mc -V trong mt na u va +V trong mt na sau
cua bit. Ma Manchester c dung rng rai phn phi tn hiu ng h trong cac
mach VLSI, dung trong a t va trong Ethernet LAN.
e- Ma HDB3: la mt loai ma Bipolar RZ nhng khi trong dong bit PCM co xut hin 4
bit 0 lin tip th thay 4 bit 0 o bng mt cum 4 bit c bit. Cum 4 bit o la 000V
hay B000V, trong o B la bit tun theo lut bipolar (+V,-V lun phin nh a trnh
bay trn), V la bit trai lut bipolar (+V,+V hoc -V, -V). Vic chon cum c bit la
000V hay B00V con phai thoa man iu kin: gia hai bit V trong dong ma HDB3, s
lng bit B phai le. ITU a ra khuyn ngh G.703 dung ma HDB3 cho PCM ghep
knh tc 2, 8 va 34 Mbps.
f- Ma CMI: la mt loai ma NRZ rt ph bin. CMI s dung ca hai mc in ap +V va -
V biu din bit 0 (-V trong mt na u va +V trong mt na sau cua bit) va
cung s dung ca hai mc in ap nh vy biu din bit 1 (mi mc chim tron
bit). Nu bit tip theo la 1 th se co thay i mc. Nh vy, ma CMI la s kt hp gia
ma Manchester (cho bit 0) va Bipolar NRZ (cho bit 1). ITU a ra khuyn ngh
G.703 dung ma CMI cho PCM ghep knh tc 140 Mbps.
Hinh 3.23 ve dang song cua cac loai ma ng a k trn ng vi mt dong bit PCM cu th.
3.6.3 Dc dim cua ma duong
a- Ma Unipolar: Hinh 3.24 a va 3.24 b biu din ph cua ma Unipolar NRZ va RZ. Ma
Unipolar RZ co khuyt im la chim bng thng gp i ma Unipolar NRZ nhng
co u im la co thanh phn ng h f
0
= 1/T
0
nn co th khi phuc ng h d dang.
- Chuong III -
Ca ma NRZ va RZ u co thanh phn mt chiu DC nn khi truyn qua cac kt ni
AC th thanh phn DC b ngn lai lam cho dang song thu b meo. Ma Unipolar co u
im la d tao ra (dung cac mach TTL va CMOS) va no ch yu cu mt ngun cung
cp.













- V
0
+V
0 0 0 V
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Unipolar NRZ
Unipolar RZ
Polar NRZ
Polar RZ
Bipolar NRZ
Bipolar RZ
HDB3
CMI
Manchester
Dong bit PCM
Mt t






Hnh 3.23 Dang song cua mt s ma ng thng dung
b- Ma Polar: Hinh 3.24 c va 3.24 d biu din ph cua ma Polar NRZ va RZ. Ta thy
ph cua ma Polar rt ging ph cua ma Unipolar nn bng thng, meo khi truyn qua
kt ni AC va kha nng khi phuc ng h cua ma Polar cung ging ma Unipolar. u
im cua ma Polar so vi Unipolar la vi cung ty l BER, yu cu cng sut tn hiu
thp hn 3 dB va mc ngng quyt nh bn thu cua ma Polar la 0 V (v cac bit 0 va
1 i cc nhau). Khuyt im cua ma Polar so vi Unipolar la yu cu hai ngun
cung cp hai mc +V va -V. Ca ma Unipolar va Polar u khng co tnh trong sut
va khng co kha nng t phat hin li.
c- Ma Bipolar: Hinh 3.24 e va 3.24 f biu din ph cua ma Bipolar NRZ va RZ. So vi

- 70 -
- Chuong III -




























f
0
f
0
2f
0
2f
0
(e)
V
2
T
0
/4
V
2
T
0
2f
0
f
0

(a)
V
2
T
0
/4
2f
0
f
0

(b) (f)
(c)
(d)
(g)
(h)
V
2
T
0
0.525V
2
T
0
V
2
T
0
/4
V
2
T
0
V
2
T
0
/16
2f
0
2f
0
2f
0
2f
0
f
0
f
0
f
0
f
0

Hnh 3.24 Ph cua ma ng
(a)Unipolar NRZ (b)Unipolar RZ (c)Polar NRZ (d)Polar RZ (e)Bipolar NRZ (f)Bipolar RZ va HDB3
(g)Manchester (h)CMI
- 71 -
- Chuong III -
- 72 -
ma Unipolar va Polar, u im cua ma Bipolar la khng cha thanh phn DC nn
khng gy meo dang song khi truyn qua cac kt ni AC, bng thng cua ma Bipolar
nho hn, lut Bipolar lun phin gia hai mc +V va -V giup ma Bipolar co kha nng
t phat hin li. Tuy nhin, khi day s 0 qua dai th se mt tn hiu ng h, b thu
phai phn bit c 3 mc in ap +V, - Vva 0 thay v hai mc nh cac ma ng
khac.
d- Ma Manchester: Hinh 3.24 g biu din ph cua ma Manchester. u im cua ma
Manchester la khng cha thanh phn DC nn ma Manchester phu hp vi cac ng
truyn co kt ni AC, kha nng khi phuc ng h d dang do co thanh phn ng h
f
0
= 1/T
0
(Hz), dong bit 1 hoc 0 lin tip vn am bao u s ln chuyn i mc nn
khng b mt tn hiu ng h, tnh trong sut c am bao. Khuyt im cua ma
Manchester la bng thng ln, khng co kha nng t phat hin li va b tao ma cn
hai ngun cung cp.
e- Ma HDB3: Hinh 3.24 f (ng net t) biu din ph cua ma HDB3. Ma HDB3 co
cac u im ging nh cua Bipolar RZ. Thm vao o, nh co s thay th day 4 s 0
lin tip bng mt cum bit c bit nn kha nng khi phuc ng h d dang va
khng b mt tn hiu ng h, bao am tnh trong sut. Quy lut ma hoa co xet n
iu kin s bit B gia hai bit V phai le giup cho kha nng phat hin li cua ma
HDB3 rt cao. Vn ma hoa va giai ma HDB3 tng i phc tap so vi cac loai
ma ng khac.
f- Ma CMI: Hinh 3.24 h biu din ph cua ma CMI. u im cua ma CMI la khng
cha thanh phn DC nn dang song thu khng b meo do cac kt ni AC, thanh phn
ng h f
0
= 1/T
0
(Hz)co mt trong ma CMI nn d khi phuc ng h, dong bit 1
hoc 0 lin tip vn am bao u s ln chuyn i mc nn khng b mt tn hiu
ng h, tnh trong sut c am bao. Bng thng cua ma CMI ln nhng suy giam
nhanh ngoai tn s f
0
= 1/T
0
khin cho bng thng -3dB vn nho. Tuy nhin, b tao
ma CMI cn co hai ngun cung cp hai mc +V va -V, ma CMI khng co kha nng
t phat hin li.
Bang 3.5 so sanh cac c im quan trong cua ma ng nh khi phuc ng h, kha nng t
tach li, dai thng chnh, kha nng kt ni AC, tnh trong sut.
3.6.4 Giao thoa lin ky tu va m hinh mt
Qua dang song cua cac loai ma ng trn, ta thy hnh dang cua xung la vung. Phn tch
ph t chng trc cho thy bng thng cua cac xung vung la v han. truyn cac
xungnay qua knh truyn vt ly co bng thng hu han, cn phai loc tn s bng b loc thng
thp. S loc nay lam rng cua xung gian ra trong min thi gian, khin cho cac xung canh
nhau co th chng ln ln nhau gy ra s giao thoa lin ky t ISI (Intersymbol Interference).
Hinh 3.25 la mt v du v anh hng cua ISI trong tn hiu thu.
Anh hng cua nhiu knh truyn va cua cac yu t khac co th bit c bng cach quan sat
dang song ma ng thu trn oscilloscope. Hinh 3.26 bn pha trai la dang song NRZ polar
- Chuong III -
thu trong cac trng hp: (a) ly tng, (b) co ISI, (c) co ISI va nhiu khac. Bn phai hnh la
dang song quan sat c trn oscilloscope. Biu din nay ging hnh mt ngi nn c goi
la m hnh mt (eye pattern). Khi khng co bit li, mt se m. Nu co nhiu, mt se ong va
cang ong cht khi co nhiu ln.

Ma duong Khi phuc dng h Tu tach li Dai thng Kt ni AC Tinh trong sut
Unipolar (NRZ) Kho Khng
f
O
Khng Khng
Unipolar (RZ) D Khng
2 f
O
Khng Khng
Polar (NRZ) Kho Khng
f
O
Khng Khng
Polar (RZ) D Khng
2 f
O
Khng Khng
Bipolar (NRZ) Kho Co
f
O
/2
Co Khng
Bipolar (RZ) Kho Co
f
O

Co Khng
Manchester
D Khng
2f
0
Co Co
HDB-3 D Co
f
O
Co Co
CMI D Co
2 f
O
Co Co
Bang 3.5











T
0
ISI
Thi im ly
mu (bn phat)
Thi im ly
mu (bn thu)
ap ng cua tng xung ring Dang song ra Dang song vao
Hnh 3.25 V du ISI cua tn hiu thu trong h thng thng tin s
M hnh mt la mt cng cu tuyt vi cho phep anh gia cht lng cua ma ng thu c
va kha nng tach li cua b thu . M hnh mt cung cp cho ta nhng thng tin sau y: li
nh thi (timing error), gii han nhiu (noise margin), lng meo ti a (maximum
distortion).
- 73 -
- Chuong III -
Li nh thi b ly mu bn thu c tnh bng b rng bn trong cua mt (goi la m
cua mt). Thi im ly mu ti u tai im ma m doc cua mt ln nht.
Gii han nhiu c tnh bng chiu cao cua m doc cua mt. y chnh la d tr i
vi nhiu. Mt cang ong lai th kha nng dn n li cang ln.
Lng meo ti a c tnh bng ln cua phn trn hay di mt tai thi im ly mu ti
u.














(b)
(a)
Gii
han
nhiu
Meo
ti
a
Thi im ly
mu ti u
(c)
Hnh 3.26 Dang so ng tn hiu polar NRZ va m hnh mt tng ng
(a)Loc ly tng (b)Loc vi ISI (c)ISI cng vi nhiu
3.7 Mo hco f|ng nc|
Ma hoa ting noi (speech coding) co th phn thanh hai loai chnh la ma hoa song (waveform
coding) va ma hoa thoai (vocoding).
B ma hoa song s dung cac thut toan ma hoa va giai ma co th tai tao c u ra cua
h thng dang song xp x vi u vao. Nh vy, chung gia nh mt mc thp hoc khng
co s hiu bit v ban cht cua tn hiu ma chung x ly. Co th ap dung ma hoa song cho tn
hiu bt ky ch khng ring tn hiu ting noi.
B ma hoa thoai (vocoder), mt cach rt c trng, se ma hoa tn hiu ting noi va ch tn
hiu ting noi ma thi. Ch nng chu yu cua b ma hoa thoai la trch ra va ma hoa cac
thng s quan trong nht cua ting noi. Cac thng s nay sau khi c ma hoa se truyn i
n bn thu, bn thu s dung cac thng s nay t cac gia tr vao cho cac b tao ham s va
b loc tng hp m thanh ting noi. Nh ch ma hoa va truyn i cac thng s quan trong
- 74 -
- Chuong III -
- 75 -
nht nn hu ht d trong ting noi a c loai bo. Tc bit cua tn hiu ting noi s
nho hn nhiu so vi ma hoa song.
Co ba kiu thit k chnh cho vocoder la vocoder kiu knh (channel vocoder), vocoder kiu
formant va ma hoa dung d oan tuyn tnh LPC (Linear Prediction Coder).
Vocoder kiu knh, v c ban, la xac nh ph tc thi cua tn hiu. Vocoder knh gm b
phn tch ph dung gian loc (filter bank) phn chia nng lng ting noi thanh cac bng
con, ri chnh lu hai na chu ky va loc xac nh cac mc cng sut tng i. Cac mc
cng sut nay c ma hoa va truyn n bn thu.
Vocoder kiu formant li dung c im quan trong sau y cua ph ting noi: nng lng
cua ting noi co xu hng tp trung vao ba hay bn nh cao, goi la cac formant. Noi cach
khac, mi t ting noi cha ng ba hay bn tn s o bin cao nht. Vocoder kiu
formant phn tch ting noi tm ra v tr va bin cua cac formant nay, t o a ra mt
m hnh cho ph ting noi ri ma hoa va truyn i cac thng s cua m hnh nay.
LPC vocoder la loai vocoder ph bin nht. LPC vocoder thng c thit k thanh mt
tng cac b loc li d oan tuyn tnh. Cac b loc nay loai khoi tn hiu ting noi cac thanh
phn co th d oan c t din bin trc o cua tn hiu nh vao vic m hnh hoa vung
thanh m cua ngi nh la mt b loc toan khng (all-zero filter). LPC la s m rng cua
DPCM thc hin m hnh hoa y u c ch tao ra ting noi, nhng khng cn truyn i
cac mu li c lng t hoa nh DPCM. Mt v du v b ma hoa LPC nh vy la LPC-10
theo chun Lin bang 1015 cua Hoa Ky. Co th thc hin LPC-vocoder trn mt chip DSP
n. LPC con c ng dung trong mt s h thng ting noi thng mai, v du b chi
tp noi va anh vn cho tre em cua hang Texas Instruments.
Do loai bo ht d nn vocoder co th ma hoa vi tc bit truyn dn rt thp. a co cac
vocoder kiu knh lam vic trong dai t 1 n 2 kbps. Nu xac nh chnh xac s bin i
trong cac formant th vocoder kiu formant co th cho ting noi chp nhn c tc nho
hn 1 kbps. Cac LPC vocoder cho tc ting noi trong pham vi t 1.2 n 2.4 kbps.
Ngay nay co xu hng tp trung nghin cu va s dung cac b ma hoa ting noi lai gia ma
hoa song va ma hoa thoai. Phng phap ma hoa ting noi lai nay kt hp c u im, khc
phuc c khuyt im cua ma hoa song va ma hoa thoai. Kt qua cho ra cht lng ting noi
ma hoa tt vi tc thp, tuy nhin phc tap lai tng ln nhiu ln. Mt v du v b ma
hoa lai nh vy la CELP/MPE 4.8 kbps theo chun Lin bang 1016 cua Hoa Ky. Mt v du
khac la CELP 16 kbps theo chun ITU-T G.728 dung trong cac h thng di ng , v du nh
GSM.
V cht lng cua vocoder th do dang song ra cua vocoder khng xp x vi dang song vao
nn m thanh kho hiu va khng t nhin (ging nh robot noi). Cht lng cua ting noi ma
hoa c anh gia bng im MOS (Mean Opinion Score).
Bang 3.6 so sanh tc , cht lng MOS va phc tap trong thc hin cua cac b ma hoa
cac loai.

- Chuong III -
Ky thut Tc d bit (kbps) MOS D phuc tap tuong di
PCM G.711 64 4.3 1
ADPCM G.721 32 4.1 10
DM 16 3 0.3
G.722 (7 kHz) 64 - 48 3.7 - 4.3 30
CELP/MPE 4.8 3.2 50-100
LPC-10 vocoder 2.4 2 40
Bang 3.6 (im MOS cao nht la 5.0)
3.8 Mo hco oud|c
Ngoai cac ky thut ma hoa k trn, con co mt s b ma hoa audio hoat ng da trn
nguyn tc ma hoa min tn s. y, tn hiu c phn chia thanh nhiu dai bng hep
ring bit nh mt gian loc (filter bank) hay bin i Fourier ri rac DFT (Discrete Fourier
Transform) tao thanh mt b ma hoa bng con SBC (Sub - Band Coder). Tn hiu trong
min thi gian ng vi mi dai c ma hoa c lp. Thc t la tn hiu trong cac bng ring
bit khng mang cung mt nng lng nh nhau. Trong ma hoa audio, dai tn s thp cha
phn ln nng lng cua tn hiu, thm vao o, nhiu l ng t rt t anh hng n tai ngi
nghe min tn s thp. iu nay cho phep ta co th ma hoa tn hiu bng tn thp bng t
bit con tn hiu min tn s cao c ma hoa bng nhiu bit hn, dn n kt qua la giam
c tc bit, giam c bng thng truyn dn.
Mt v du v ma hoa bng con ang c s dung hin nay la b ma hoa audio cht lng
cao ITU-T G.722, ma hoa tn hiu t 0 - 7 kHz, phn chia tn hiu thanh 2 bng con, cho tc
bit cua tn hiu ma hoa la 64/56/48 kbps vi im MOS t 3.7 - 4.3. B ma hoa nay khng
phc tap lm, co th thc hin trn mt b vi x ly cua DSP.
Cac hang san xut u compact disc cung a thanh cng vi vic ma hoa phn chia 32 bng
con i vi tn hiu hi-fi 20 kHz. B ma hoa PCM n gian ly mu vi tn s 44.1 kHz yu
cu 700 kbps hay 15 bit trn mt mu nhng b ma hoa bng con trn c s DFT th ch yu
cu 88 kbps hay ch 2 bit trn mt mu.

TOM TT CHUONG
1. Mt trong nhng phng phap bin i tn hiu tng t sang s ph bin hn ca la iu
ch xung ma PCM. Ba bc c ban thc hin PCM gm ly mu, lng t hoa va ma
hoa.
2. Ly mu la bc u tin trong qua trnh bin i tn hiu tng t sang s theo ky thut
PCM. Muc ch cua bc ly mu nay la t tn hiu tng t, ta tao nn mt day xung ri
rac tun hoan rng bng nhau, bin xung bng vi gia tr cua tn hiu tng t tai thi
im ly mu. Day xung ri rac o con c goi la tn hiu PAM.
3. Nu tn hiu PAM co tn s u ln th co th khi phuc lai tn hiu tng t ban u t tn
hiu PAM. nh ly ly mu Shannon a ra gii han di cua tn s o la ,
m S
f 2 f
- 76 -
- Chuong III -
trong o la tn s cua tn hiu PAM va la tn s cc ai cua ph tn hiu tng
t.
S
f
m
f
4. Ly mu t nhin la qua trnh nhn tn hiu tng t vi day xung ly mu p
T
(t). Day
xung ly mu p
T
(t) la day xung vung tun hoan vi chu ky ,
rng xung la , chiu cao xung la h = 1. Ph cua tn hiu ly mu bao gm v s phin
ban ph cua tn hiu tng t nm cach nhau
m S S
f 2 f , f / 1 T =

T / 2 . Nu tn s ly mu khng thoa man

nh ly ly mu Shannon th xay ra hin tng cac phin ban ph chng ln ln nhau, goi
la hin tng chng ph hay mp m ph. Vic thc hin ly mu t nhin kha d dang,
ch cn mt chuyn mach tng t hai u vao mt u ra.
5. Ngoai cach ly mu t nhin, ta con co th ly mu tc thi, tao ra tn hiu flat-top PAM,
gia tr cua tn hiu flat-top PAM bng vi gia tr cua tn hiu tng t ngay thi im
ly mu va gi nguyn nh vy trong sut khoang thi gian bng vi rng cu a xung
ly mu. tao ra tn hiu flat-top PAM, ta s dung b ly mu va gi mu.
6. Nu tn s ly mu thoa nh ly ly mu th t tn hiu PAM, ta co th khi phuc c tn
hiu gc ban u nh mt b loc thng thp tn s ct f
m
. B loc thng thp nay c goi
la loc khi phuc .
7. Li dung khoang cach gia hai xung PAM canh nhau rt ln, ngi ta ghep vao trong
khoang o cac xung PAM khac cua cac tn hiu t cac knh khac ri truyn i. Phng
phap nay goi la ghep knh phn chia theo thi gian TDM.
8. Lng t hoa la s xp x hoa cac gia tr cua cac mu tng t bng cach s dung s mc
hu han M. Khoang cach gia cac mc nay goi la kch thc bc S .
9. S khac nhau gia tn hiu gc va tn hiu lng t hoa goi la nhiu lng t hoa. Cng
sut trung bnh cua nhiu lng t hoa la:
12
S
P
2
q
= . Nhiu lng t hoa se tng khi kch
thc bc tng va ngc lai.
10. Tn hiu lng t hoa co kha nng han ch s tch luy nhiu, se hoan toan loai bo nhng
nhiu co bin di mt na kch thc bc. Vy bng cach tng kch thc bc ta
co th giam bt s tch luy nhiu. Tuy nhin tng kch thc bc th se dn n tng
nhiu lng t hoa.
11. S kt hp gia hoat ng ly mu va lng t hoa tao ra tn hiu PAM lng t hoa.
Trc khi truyn i, mi mu PAM lng t hoa c ma hoa thanh mt t ma s goi la
t ma PCM . Co th s dung ma Gray hoc ma nh phn biu din t ma PCM. dai
cua t ma PCM phai chon la n thoa man: 1 M log n M log
2 2
+ <
12. Trong thc t th b lng t hoa va ma hoa khng tach ring ma gp chung trong b
chuyn i tng t - s ADC. Co ba phng phap thng dung chuyn i tng t -
s la phng phap m hay ma hoa theo dc, phng phap ni tip hay xp x lin tip
hay con goi la phan hi va phng phap song song.
- 77 -
- Chuong III -
13. Tn hiu PCM c giai ma tr lai thanh tn hiu tng t nh b chuyn i s - tng t
DAC. Mi t ma PCM c chuyn i thanh mt gia tr cua mu tng t xp x vi bn
phat nh mt b giai ma. Dang tn hiu u ra cua b giai ma chnh la PAM lng t hoa.
Tn hiu PAM nay c lam mn nh mt b loc thng thp khi phuc tao lai tn hiu
tng t.
14. Bng thng cua tn hiu PCM ln hn bng thng cua tn hiu tng t tng ng t nht
la n ln. . y la khuyt im chnh cua h thng thng tin s dung PCM.
15. Co hai loai nhiu chnh anh hng ln tn hiu PCM la: nhiu lng t hoa va li bit.
Nhiu lng t hoa co th phn thanh bn loai la: nhiu qua tai, nhiu ngu nhin, nhiu
hat va nhiu rung. Li bit gy bi nhiu knh truyn, nh qua trnh ma hoa knh nn li
nay rt nho khng ang k.
16. Ty s tn hiu trn nhiu S/N tnh bng dB la: + = n 02 , 6 ) N / S (
dB
; y = 4,77
i vi S/N nh va = 0 i vi S/N trung bnh nu tn hiu vao at mc ti a. Thc t
th ty s (S/N) khng ng u ma phu thuc vao bin tn hiu tng t.
17. Cng sut trung bnh cua nhiu lng t hoa phu thuc vao kch thc bc S. Nu kch
thc bc khng thay i th ty s S/N se nho i vi tn hiu co bin nho va ln i
vi tn hiu co bin ln. at c ty s S/N ng u ma khng lam tng s mc
lng t hoa th tin hanh lng t hoa khng ng u vi kch thc bc thay i:
kch thc bc nho i vi tn hiu co bin nho va ngc la i.
18. thc hin lng t hoa khng u, trc ht cho tn hiu tng t i qua mt b
khuch ai nen phi tuyn goi la b nen (compressor), ri vao b ma hoa PCM s dung
lng t hoa u. Co hai lut nen la lut va lut A. Ngc vi qua trnh nen bn phat,
bn thu thc hin qua trnh giai nen hay con goi la gian nh b gian (expandor).
19. qua trnh nen - gian khng lam anh hng n cht lng cua tn hiu khi phuc th
y phai la mt qua trnh tuyn tnh. iu nay c thc hin trong thc t bng cach xp
x tuyn tnh hoa tng oan. c tuyn nen lut A c xp x hoa bng mt ng gp
khuc 13 oan.
20. tit kim bng thng truyn dn, co th thc hin cac ky thut s hoa khac hiu qua
hn PCM. Ca c ky thut nay quan tm n s tng quan cua tn hiu, s dung d
lam giam tc bit, tc la giam bng thng. Cac ky thut giam bng thng thng gp
bao gm: PCM delta, PCM vi sai DPCM, DPCM thch nghi, iu ch delta DM va iu
ch delta thch nghi AD.
21. PCM delta la mt ky thut n gian giam bng thng cua tn hiu PCM. Thay v ma
hoa va truyn i toan b gia tr cua mu, PCM delta ch ma hoa va truyn i chnh
lch gia cac mu canh nhau .Thng thng chnh lch nay nho hn gia tr cua toan
b mu nn ma hoa lch se s dung t bit trong mt t ma hn so vi PCM thng
th ng.
- 78 -
- Chuong III -
- 79 -
22. Ky thut DPCM thc hin ma hoa trn c s PCM nhng s dung thut toan d oan
d oan gia tr cua mu tng lai cua tn hiu, ri i cho n khi gia tr cua mu thc s
xut hin kim tra so sanh, sau o truyn i tn hiu biu din sai khac gia gia tr d
oan vi gia tr thc s. Sai khac nay biu din cho phn khng d oan c. Theo cach
o, DPCM cho phep ma hoa vi dai t ma giam i, bng thng cua tn hiu giam i.
23. Ky thut DPCM thch nghi la mt phin ban phc tap hn cua ky thut DPCM. Trong
ADPCM, cac h s d oan khng c nh ma thay i phu hp vi s thay i cua cac
s liu thng k cua tn hiu. Gia tr cua cac h s nay c truyn i trn ng truyn.
24. Ky thut DM la mt trng hp c bit cua DPCM, trong o mi t ma ch co mt bit
nh phn, ngha la ch co hai mc lng t hoa M = 2. Bit duy nht nay ch ra s tng hay
giam cua mu sau so vi mu trc.
25. Cung nh PCM thng thng, tn hiu DM cung chu tac ng cua nhiu lng t hoa.
Khi b DM khng th theo kp nhng bin i nhanh cua tn hiu vao th tn hiu ma hoa
cach xa tn hiu vao mt khoang ln hn kch thc bc, ta noi b DM b qua tai theo
dc. gi cho hai loai nhiu nay nm trong pham vi cho phep, ta phai ly mu vi
tn s ly mu ln hn tn s ly mu s dung trong PCM nhiu ln.
26. gi cho ca hai nhiu lng t hoa va nhiu qua tai theo dc nm trong pham vi cho
phep ma khng tng tn s ly mu ln nhiu ln nh trong DM, ngi ta s dung ky
thut DM thch nghi ADM. y, kch thc bc thay i theo tn hiu vao, kch thc
bc ln khi co nhiu qua tai theo dc va nho khi co nhiu lng t hoa.
27. biu din tn hiu s cho phu hp truyn qua knh thng tin, phai thc hin nh
dang tn hiu s. Cac bit nh phn 0 va 1 co th c biu din di nhiu dang khac
nhau goi la ma ng.
28. Vic la chon loai ma ng nao cho phu hp phai da vao mt hoc nhiu cac yu t
nh: thanh phn mt chiu DC, bng thng, ty l li bit BER, tnh trong sut, kha nng
d dang khi phuc ng h, kha nng t phat hin li, n gian trong vic thc hin ma
hoa va giai ma.
29. Co hai loai ma ng chnh la RZ va NRZ . Vi ma RZ, dang song tr v mc in ap
tham chiu (thng 0 V) trong mt na bit, ma NRZ th khng quay tr v mc in ap
tham chiu. Trong mi loai, ma ng lai c phn loai tip thanh: Unipolar NRZ,
Unipolar RZ, Polar NRZ, Polar RZ, Bipolar NRZ, Bipolar RZ, Manchester, HDB3,
CMI...
30. Hnh dang cua xung biu din cac ma ng la vung. Bng thng cua cac xung vung la
v han. truyn cac xung nay qua knh truyn vt ly co bng thng hu han, cn phai
loc tn s bng b loc thng thp. S loc nay lam rng cua xung gian ra trong min
thi gian, khin cho cac xung canh nhau co th chng ln ln nhau gy ra s giao thoa
lin ky t ISI
31. Anh hng cua nhiu knh truyn va cua cac yu t khac co th bit c bng cach quan
sat dang song ma ng thu trn oscilloscope. Biu din nay c goi la m hnh mt.
- Chuong III -
- 80 -
M hnh mt cho phep anh gia cht lng cua ma ng thu c va kha nng tach li
cua b thu, cung cp cho ta nhng thng tin nh: li nh thi, gii han nhiu, lng meo
ti a...
32. Ma hoa ting noi chuyn i ting noi t tng t sang s vi tc cc thp so vi
PCM. Co th phn thanh hai loai chnh la ma hoa song va ma hoa thoai.
33. B ma hoa song s dung cac thut toan ma hoa va giai ma co th tai tao c u ra
cua h thng dang song xp x vi u vao, v du in hnh la PCM.
34. B ma hoa thoai (vocoder) hoat ng trn nguyn tc ch ma hoa truyn i cac t hp
m v la yu t c ban cu thanh nn ting noi. B giai ma tao lai ting noi bng cach
khi phuc lai cac t hp m v nay. Nh ch ma hoa va truyn i cac thng s quan trong
nht nn hu ht d trong ting noi a c loai bo, tc bit cua tn hiu ting noi s
nho hn nhiu so vi ma hoa song. Tuy nhin luc nay ting noi ch u hiu ch khng
con gi c phn bit, tnh trung thc, ng iu...cua ngi noi nh PCM.
35. Co ba kiu thit k chnh cho vocoder la vocoder kiu knh, vocoder kiu formant va ma
hoa dung d oan tuyn tnh LPC.
36. Ma hoa audio da trn nguyn tc ma hoa bng con: phn chia tn hiu thanh cac dai
bng ring bit va ma hoa t bit i vi tn hiu trong bng tn thp , nhiu bit i vi tn
hiu bng tn cao. Kt qua la giam c s bit yu cu cho mi mu, giam c
rng bng thng cua tn hiu ma hoa.