FISH KILL: CAUSES, CONTROL AND IMPACT MITIGATION

Carlito R. Barril, Ph.D

Professor of Chemistry (Retired) UPLB

Presentation Outline
Introduction
Definition Selected fish kill events in the world

Causes of fish kill

Types of fish kill Causal factors

Control measures
Prevention and investigation Institutional measures Engineering measures

Mitigation of impact
Proposed monitoring and warning system

Conclusions
2

Definition(s)
Fish kill is defined as localized mass die off of fish that can occur in

marine, estuarine, or freshwaters (Meyer and Barclay, 1990)

Fish kill is a sudden and unexpected mass mortality of wild or

cultured fish (Lugg, 2000).

The term fish kill, known also as fish die-off and (in Britain) as fish

mortality, is a localized die-off of fish populations which may also be associated with more generalised mortality of aquatic life.(Wikipedia)
A single fish kill event can number from several individuals to

millions of dead fish.

Definition(s)
Standard definition suggested (La and Cooke, 2011):

An event is considered a fish kill : a) if the mortality event is not part of the fishes natural life cycle (e.g.,
mass mortality following spawning activity in semelparous fish);
(b) if a minimum of 25 dead fish are found in one square kilometre (lentic) or river kilometre (lotic) and within a 48-hr period, and

(c) if mortality was not caused by predation, including by humans (i.e., harvest)

Thus , a single fish kill event can number from 25 to millions of dead fish.

Economic Impacts of Fish Kill

Significant economic loss for the fish farm owners in case of open fishing areas - reducing the population of

recreationally and commercially valuable fish Reducing source of fish protein available for humans. cleanup costs reduced tourism and recreation value Affects usage of body of water for domestic water supply Large fish kills also have a negative effect on regulation of food web dynamics and nutrient balance .
5

Objectives
To understand the causes of fish kills and why they occur in order to implement preventive measures to reduce their frequency and magnitude. Specifically:
Review fish kill events in the world Understand the different causes of fish kills

Determine the protocols employed in investigating, controlling and

minimizing impacts of fish kills.

Propose a protocol for preventing and minimizing impact of fish kills in the

Philippines focused on Laguna de Bay

Overview of fish kills in the world:

How widespread are the fish kills?

Unfortunately, fish kill events are typical and occur worldwide.
Most fish kill events are not isolated, and tend to recur often

(Thronson and Quigg, 2008). For example, North Carolina reports approximately30 fish kill events per year since 1996 (NCDWQ, 200 ). New South Wales reports an average of 34 fish kills per year, (Koehn, 2004). Reports of fish kill came also from Kenya (Ochumba, 1990), Norway (Leivestad and Muniz, 1976), Brazil (Munoz et al., 1994), United Kingdom,, Ireland, Australia, China, etc.
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How widespread are the fish kills?

In North America, a number of regional summaries of fish kill causes

were reported in Kansas, Missouri, Florida, and North Carolina, and a national summary for the United States between 1980 and 1989 (Lowe et al., 1991). Based on EPA data from 19771987, estimated 141 million fish die per year nationally because of fish kills (Pimentel et al., 1993) A review of all fish kill events that were summarized in both the peerreviewed literature and technical reports for North American estuaries and freshwaters from 18902006 (excluding the summaries produced by Kansas, Missouri, Florida, and North Carolina to avoid regional bias) identified 170 fish kill events. (see Table 1
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Table 1a. Some reports on frequency of fish kill events.

Place and date USA (19771987) North Carolina, (1980s) North Carolina, USA, 1996 North Carolina, USA, 2008 New South Wales New South Wales (1980-1989) New South Wales (1990-1996) Murray-Darling Basin, Australia (20022004) Ave. No. of fish kill events/year >170 15 30 61 34 (60-80) 16.6 35.7 3 No. of fish killed 141 million per year 2.5 million Not reported 7.5 M Not reported Not reported Not reported >5,000 per event Reference Pimentel et al., 1993. Lowe et al., 1991 NCDWQ, 2000 NCDWQ, 2008 Koehn, 2004 Lugg, 2000 Lugg, 2000 Koehn, 2004

Trend in number of fish kill reports in the newspapers worldwide

A search for the newspaper articles on fish kills printed in English was conducted by La and Cooke (2011) covering articles representative of over 350 major newspapers across North America, Europe, Australia, Asia, and Africa. From 1977 thru mid 1980s - fish kills reported were < 50/year) (see Fig. 1) Between 1987 - 1994, the number of reports rose steadily to over 200/year. By 1997, thru 2007 there were over 800 media reports on fish kills annually

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Fig. 1a. - Trend in number of fish kills reported in the newspapers worldwide

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Table 1b. Selected fish kill events in the world

No. Event/Location Date Count (Estimate) Species Cause/Remarks Caused by red tide. This event caused coughing ,sneezing and watery eyes in humans. . Caused by red tide Caused by spill from Swiss chemical warehouse. Caused by a bloom of Karenia brevis Caused by discharge of 10000 gallons of chemical HMP 2000 into the river. salmon, trout, pe rch Unconfirmed link to release of whey into river ] Natural upwelling of an acknowledged polluted river. Hydrogen sulfide smell reported. Gulf of Mexico (Corpus Christi) 1935, Gulf 22,000,000 menhaden, strip ed mullet, various other 22,000,000 species[34] 500,000 21,000,000

1986 2 3 Rhine River, Europe Texas coast, USA White River; West Fork, Indiana, USA River Dee (United Kingdom) Neuse River, North Carolina, USA 1986 01 19971998

1999

4,800,000 100,000[38 ]

2002 07

2004 09

1,900,000 menhaden

Liuxihe River Guangzhou Peopl 2008 09 09 e's Republic of China

10,000 carp

Unknown[41][42]

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Table 1b. Selected fish kill events in the world

No. 8 Event/Location Beaches at Thanet, Kent, England Ting River Fujian People's Republic of China Date 2010 01 Count Species Cause/Remarks 20,000 velvet crab >1,000,000 Can feed 70,000 people a year redfish, trout, >1,000,000 pogies, drum, crabs, shrimp, bream, carp, silver 250,000 carp, grass carp anchovies, m ackerel, sardi millions nes and other small fish several tons 40,000 kilograms herring Various

dead crabs, starfish, lobsters, sponges and anemones. Probably killed by hypothermia.
Part of the Zijin mining disaster

2010 07

10

Mississippi River; Plaquemines 2010 09 Parish, Louisiana, USA Jiaxing Xiuzhou District People's Republic of China Redondo Beach, California, USA Nordreisa, Troms, Norway Guangxi, People's Republic of China 2011 01 06

BP oil discharge, High T & low tide Only fish caught from a river under China National Highway 320 east died.

11

12

2011 03 2011 12 31 2012 01 15

Caused by oxygen deprivation

13 14

[53][54]

Caused by 2012 Guangxi cadmium spill

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Table 1b. Selected fish kill events in the world

No.
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Event/Location
Laguna de Bay, Looc Laguna de Bay, Central Bay

Date
1972, May

Count
20 000

Species
Milkfish

Cause/Remarks
Algal bloom of microcystis

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1973, June, July, August

90% of stocks killed in Milkfish several fishpens 996 ha of fishpens affected, 5,000,000 50 metric tons 750 metric tons 500 metric tons >10 metric tons, Not counted

Algal bloom, overstocking,

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Laguna de Bay, Central Bay Taal Lake, Luzon, Philippines Taal Lake, Batangas, Philippines Lingayen Gulf, Anda, Pangasinan, Philippines Laguna de Bay-Jala-jala, Calamba, Sta. Cruz, Pakil

1975, June, July

Milkfish

Algal bloom, overstocking,

18
19 20 21

2008 01 05
2011 05 29 2011 05 30 2012, MayJune

May be linked to volcanic activity and large fish farms Tilapia, milkfi Caused by oxygen depletion and sh overstocking Oxygen depletion and change of Milkfish water climate DO depletion ; Unexplained dead fish Tilapia, carp in open waters showed bruises and cuts

Tilapia

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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1b. Massive fish kill at Lake Elmer in Kingfisher Oklahoma, USA
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Talisay: More than 800 tons of fish have died and rotted on fish farms in a lake near Taal volcano south

Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1c. Massive fish kill in Plaquemines Parish, West Missippi river, Louisiana USA. Sept. 2010
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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1d. Close up of fish kill in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana due to low tide and high temperatures. BP oil discharge was also blamed.

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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1e. Fish kill in West Pearl river, in New Orleans, LA. August 17, 2011. Caused by black liquor discharge from a paper plant.
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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1f. Fish Kill in Dubuque, Iowa, linked to Dairy Farm Runoff. USA

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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1g. Massive California fish kill. Estimated 1 Million Sardine Carcasses /March 15th, 2011. Caused by depleted dissolved oxygen level.
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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1h. Large quantities of dead fish floats on Guanqiao Lake in Wuhan, Central China's Hubei Province . July 11, 2007.
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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1i. More than 800 tons of farmed fish in the northern Philippines died suddenly after the water temperature rose. May, 2011
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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1j. Thousands of milk fish float in a cage after a massive fish kill at Taal Lake, Batangas.

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Selected fish kill events in the world

Fig. 1k. Talisay: More than 800 tons of fish have died and rotted on fish farms in Taal lake , Batangas. May-June 2011
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Causes of Fish Kill

By and large, 66.9% of fish kills are caused by anthropogenic

activities, while only 10.1% were caused by natural events and 23% were undetermined. (NCDWQ,2000; Thronson and Quigg, 2008).

Table 2 shows the distribution of fish kill causes as follows: agricultural pollution (19.5%), biotoxins (17.2%), and chemical pollution (7.1%). Minor causes were extreme changes in temperatures (5.9%), low dissolved oxygen (5.3%), gas bubble trauma (3.6%), disease (3.6%), exhaustion (2.4%), and acidification (1.2%), and undetermined (23%).
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Table 2a. Common Causes of Fish Kill

Cause
Agricultural pollution
- Pertains to pesticide, fertilizer and manure, silo and feedlot drainage, animal waste, etc.can be direct or lead to other problems, such as hypoxia

Frequency 19.5% 17.2% 7.1%

Biotoxin - Toxic algal and dinoflagellate blooms that are caused by Karena brevis, Pfiestera, etc. Industrial pollution -Pollution arising from various resource extraction, processing, and
manufacturing activities (e.g., mining, food and kindred products, chemicals, metals, petroleum, and paper products)

Extreme temperature changes - Rapid changes in temperature (e.g., cold shock) Low dissolved oxygen (hypoxia or anoxia)- Low levels of oxygen in the water,
usually associated with urban runoff, algal bloom, decay of organic material (i.e., biological oxygen demand), rainfall events, etc.

5.9% 5.3%

Disease - Various bacteria, parasites, fungus, and viruses Gas bubble trauma - Gas-supersaturation downstream from dams or other infrastructure or
natural barriers

3.6% 3.6% 2.4% 1.2%

Exhaustion -Physical exhaustion of fish typically leading to cardiac collapse (e.g., during
challenging migration)

Acidification - Acidification by oxidation of sulphide minerals; can be delivered via

precipitation (e.g., acid rain)

Municipal pollution - from refuse disposal, water system, swimming pools, power, and sewage
systems

Transportation pollution- Pollution that pertains to rail, trucks, barge or boats, and pipeline
ruptures

Unknown/undetermined -

Fish kill events in which no cause can readily be determined

26 23%

Common causes of fish kill

Fish kills -first visible signs of environmental stress; Common causes : hypoxia or oxygen depletion, diseases and parasites, toxic substances and hazardous wastes, temperature change, overstocking, underwater explosion, etc.

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

1. What

is hypoxia or oxygen depletion ?

Hypoxia, or oxygen depletion, is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments as dissolved oxygen (DO)

level is reduced to a point where it becomes detrimental to living aquatic organisms. DO is typically expressed as % of O2 or mg/L dissolved at prevailing temp. and salinity (Tables 2a &2b). States of hypoxia in an aquatic environment is shown in Table 2c.

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What is hypoxia or oxygen depletion ?

Table 2b. Solubility of oxygen in equilibrium with air in fresh water (salinity 0) (at P = 1 Atm)
Temp
oC

DO at 100% Saturation mg/l 14.6 12.8 11.3 10.1 9.1 8.3

DO at 80% Saturation mg/l 11.68 10.24 9.04 8.08 7.28 6.64

DO at 30% Saturation mg/l 4.38 3.84 3.39 3.03 2.73 2.49

0 5 10 15 20 25

30 35 40 45

7.6 7 6.5 6

6.08 5.6 5.2 4.8

2.28 2.1 1.95 1.8

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What is hypoxia or oxygen depletion ?

Table 2c. Solubility of oxygen in equilibrium with air in sea (salt) water (at P = 1 Atm)
Temp
oC

DO at 100% Saturation mg/l 11.2 9.9 8.8 7.9 7.2 6.6

DO at 80% Saturation mg/l 8.96 7.92 7.04 6.32 5.76 5.28

DO at 30% Saturation mg/l 3.36 2.97 2.64 2.37 2.16 1.98

0 5 10 15 20 25

30 35 40 45

6.1 5.6 5.3 4.9

4.88 4.48 4.24 3.92

1.83 1.68 1.59 1.47

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What is hypoxia or oxygen depletion ?

Table 2d . States of hypoxia in aquatic environment
State (Zone) DO Level (%) DO at 25oC & 1 Atm in sea water (mg/L) Remark

Anoxic or anaerobic exaerobic

0% >0<1% 1 to 30% 80%

All fish and benthic organism die

Boundary between anoxic & hypoxic zones 0.07 to 1.98 (2.26 freshwater) 5.28 (6.64 freshwater) Most fish cannot live below 30% 5 mg/L is the water quality criteria for DO

Hypoxic or dysoxic
Healthy or oxic

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Algal bloom is a term used to describe the profuse growth of

aquatic algae. It can occur in both fresh water and marine environments. Algal blooms are often green, but can also be yellow-brown or red, depending on the species of algae. One common algal bloom is caused by the blue green algae, microcystis sp., a cyanobacteria which may resemble a green blanket covering a body of water during summer especially when the water is calm. (see Figures )

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Fig. 2a. Algal bloom -The thick green waters of Lake Chaohu, China

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Fig. 2b. Algal Blooms - Midwest Lakes, USA

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

DO level cycle during an algal bloom:
During the day, DO is high because of the

photosynthesizing algae.
At nightime, DO is reduced by the aerobic respiration of

all living organisms in the water (see Fig. 2a)

A diurnal cycle of DO level is thus observed, very high

during the day and low towards the break of dawn.

Some fish might be distressed at this period but no

deaths are yet observed.

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Diurnal cycle of DO during photosynthesis and Aerobic respiration

Fig. 2c Aerobic respiration (red arrows) during which both plants and animals utilize oxygen to metabolize organic compounds that were created through photosynthesis (green arrow).
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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

DO level cycle during an algal bloom:
When the algae bloom collapsed, i.e. the algae died, and sunk to the

bottom where they are decomposed by facultative anaerobic organisms

First by facultative bacteria and later, when all DO is depleted, by

anaerobic bacteria producing obnoxious products such as NH3 and H2S sulfide which are both highly toxic to fish (see Box #1).
Under these conditions, no fish or any other benthic organisms can

live.
And if these bottom waters with zero DO and containing toxic NH3

and H2S are brought up by turnover or any mixing process, then fish kill will surely occur.(see Fig. 2a)

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Box # 1. Anaerobic decomposition products:
ORGANIC MATTER (C, H, O, N, P, S) Anaerobes CH4, NH3, H2S, CO2,VFA

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Figure 2d. A simplified model of a summer fish kill mechanism. Critical levels indicate high fish kill risk. (After Barica 1973, 1975 b)

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Fig. 2e. Key Indicators before and after algal collapse: Secchi disc transparency is only 0.20.4 m at bloom phase DO high during bloom phase and falls abruptly during the algal collapse and decay chlorophyll a values of 100200 ug/1 (algal bloom phase) Ammonia at near-zero level starts to increase and reaches maximum after DO drops to zero. pH follows DO, high during bloom phase and low during algal decay.
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Ammonia toxicity to fish

Among the effects are:

loss of equilibrium, Hyper-excitability, increased breathing, decrease in nitrogen excretion, not to mention death. At lower concentrations: reduced hatch and reduced growth rates.

Percentage of toxic un-ionized NH3 vs. NH4+ ion increases with Temp but decreases with pH. At pH 8.5, - %NH3 is 15.3 at 25oC. and 20.3 at 3ooC At 3ooC , - %NH3 is 7 at pH 8.0 and 2.48 at pH 7.46 However, toxicity of NH3 increases with decreasing pH. (see Table 2e)

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Table 2e. Lethal ammonia concentrations for salmon at 86 degrees 30oC (by pH, and duration of exposure) (EPA, 1985). pH Duration Lethal* Ammonia Concentration (mg/l) Total NH3 Un-ionized NH 3
14.3 0.73
11.6 0.74 7.3 0.74 3.5 0.47 1.3 0.17

6.5

1-hr 4-hr
1-hr 4-hr 1-hr 4-hr 1-hr 4-hr 1-hr 4-hr

0.036 0.002
0.093 0.006 0.181 0.019 0.27 0.035 0.26 0.035

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

*LC50 levels at which half of the exposed individuals die. U.S. EPA recommends that these levels should not be exceeded more than once in three years.
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Table 2f. Toxicity of hydrogen sulfide to fishes.(EPA database).

Common Name Goldfish White sucker Lake whitefish Northern pike Asian redtail catfish Bluegill Largemouth bass Rainbow trout,donaldson trout Scientific Name Carassius auratus Catostomus commersoni Coregonus clupeaformis Esox lucius Hemibagrus nemurus Lepomis macrochirus Micropterus salmoides Oncorhynchus mykiss Avg Species LC50 (ug/L) 58.4 23.4 15.3 38.7 3.20 23.1 78.1 38.0 LC50 Std Dev 31.1 6.32 25.9 26.9 12.3 82.5 38.3 Avg Species Rating Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic

Yellow perch
Fathead minnow Brown trout

Perca flavescens
Pimephales promelas Salmo trutta Stizostedion vitreum

35.6
57.3 7.00

43.4
93.2 -

Very Highly Toxic

Very Highly Toxic Very Highly Toxic

Walleye

42.0

21.7

Very Highly Toxic

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How does turnover cause fish kill? How does heavy rain cause fish kill?

Lake is stratified with high DO in upper layer (epilimnion) and low DO at the lower layer (hypolimnion)

During turnover the heavy cold rainwater sinks causing a mixing of the two layers

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Red tide or harmful algal bloom (HAB)
Algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms via production of natural toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are often associated with large-scale marine mortality events and have been associated with various types of shellfish poisoning. (see Table ) Of the 5000+ species of marine phytoplankton that exist worldwide, about 2% are known to be harmful or toxic.[6]

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Fig. 2f. Red tide or Harmful Algal Bloom

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Fig. 2g. Red tide or Harmful Algal Bloom

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Examples of common harmful effects of HABs: production of neurotoxins which cause mass mortalities in fish, seabirds, sea turtles, and marine mammals

human illness or death via consumption of seafood contaminated by toxic algae

mechanical damage to other organisms, such as disruption of epithelial gill tissues in fish, resulting in asphyxiation oxygen depletion of the water column (hypoxia or anoxia) from cellular respiration and bacterial degradation

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How does algal bloom cause fish kill?

Table 2e . Toxins associated with red tides (HABs)
Toxin Brevetoxins dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense cyanobacteria Anabaena sp Diatom Pseudo-nitzschia, Domoic Acid HAB species dinoflagellate Karenia brevis Affected Organisms Remark /effects bottlenose dolphins, neurotoxin responsible manatees, whale for neurotoxic shellfish poisoning Finfish, shellfish neurotoxin responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning neurotoxin responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning

Saxitoxin

Mammals, human

Cyanotoxins

cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) Microsystis, Anabaena, Planktothrix (Oscillatoria), Nostoc, etc.

Fish, birds, livestock, domestic animals and sometimes humans.

neutrotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, microcystins, and endotoxins.

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

2. Diseases and parasites

Major types of fish diseases 1. Infectious diseases- caused by viruses, bacteria and fungi 2. Invasive diseases caused by parasites such as protozoans, flukes and worms, or crustaceans. Fish that are stressed for other reasons, such as spawning or suboptimal water quality, are more susceptible. In fish farming, where populations are optimized for the available resources, parasites or disease can spread quickly
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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

Diseases and parasites

Pathogens which can cause fish diseases comprise: viral infections bacterial infections, such as Pseudomonas fluorescens leading to fin rot and fish dropsy fungal infections water mould infections, such as Saprolegnia sp. metazoan parasites, such as copepods unicellular parasites, such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis

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Causes of fish kill (Contd) Effects of diseases and parasites

Some early warning signs :[10] Discoloration, open sores, reddening of the skin, bleeding, black or white spots on the skin, missing scales or lack of slime Abnormal shape, swollen areas, abnormal lumps, or popeyes Abnormal activity such as flashing, twisting, whirling, convulsions, loss of buoyancy Listlessness, weakness, sluggishness, lack of activity Loss of appetite or refusal to feed

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

3.Toxic

substances and hazardous wastes

Sources include: agricultural runoffs carrying pesticides, fertilizers, etc. industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes such as toxic heavy metals, acidic process waters, etc., hazardous spills such as petroleum products, Sewage surface runoff containing high organic load

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

Toxic substances and hazardous wastes

Human-induced fish kills are unusual, but occasionally a spilled

substance causes direct toxicity or a shift in water temperature or pH that can lead to fish kill. Some notable fish kills in Louisiana in the 1950s were due to a specific pesticide called endrin.[ in 1997 a phosphate plant in Mulberry, Florida, accidentally dumped 60 M gallons of acidic process water into a creek, reducing the pH to less than 4, resulting in the death of about 1.3 million fish.[7] About a million of fish died after an accidental spill of bourbon whiskey into the Kentucky River. However, officials could not determine whether the fish kill was due to the bourbon directly or to oxygen depletion that resulted when aquatic microbes rapidly 54 began to consume and digest the liquor.[7]

Causes of fish kill (Contd)

Toxic substances and hazardous wastes

In 1999, about 5 million fish died in White River, Indiana caused

by an automotive parts maker which had discharged 10,000 gallons of the chemical HMP 2000 into the river. In Jan. 2012, about 40,000 kg of fish died in Guangxi, People's Republic of China caused by cadmium spill in a river. Cyanide is a particular toxic compound that has been used to poach fish. In cyanide poisoning the gills turn a distinctive cherry red. Chlorine introduced as alkaline hypochlorite solution is also extremely toxic leaving pale mucilaginous gills and an overproduction of mucilage across the whole body.
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Causes of fish kill (Contd) 4. Climate change: drought & temperature change

Fish kills can also result from a dramatic or prolonged drop in air (and water) temperature.
This kind of fish kill is selective usually the dead fish are species that cannot tolerate cold. Tilapia are unable to survive in temperate climates because

they require warm water. Most species of tilapia will die at a range of 52 to 62 F (11 to 17 C).

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

Climate change: drought & temperature change

A fish kill can occur with rapid fluctuations in temperature or sustained high temperatures. A period of sustained high temperatures can lead to decreased DO in a body of water. An August, 2010, fish kill in Delaware Bay was attributed to

low oxygen as a result of high temperatures.[23] In September, 2010, a massive (millions) fish kill at the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, was attributed to a combination of high temperatures and low tide. BP oil discharge was also blamed.

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Selected fish kill episodes in the world

Fig. 2d. Massive fish kill in Plaquemines Parish, West Missippi river, Louisiana, Sept. 2010 due to low tide and high temperatures.
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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

5. Droughts and overstocking

A drought can lead to lower water volumes to the extent that the

reduced volume may not be enough for the fish population.

Droughts often occur in conjunction with high temperatures so

that DO level is also reduced.

Low river flows also reduce the available dilution for permitted

discharges of treated sewage or industrial waste.

The reduced dilution increases the organic demand for oxygen

further reducing the oxygen concentration available to fish.

Overstocking of fishpen can also result in fish kills!!!

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Causes of fish kill (Contd)

6.

Underwater explosions and emissions

Underwater explosions can lead to fish kill, and fish with swim

bladders are more susceptible. Sometimes underwater explosions are used on purpose to induce fish kills, a generally illegal practice known as blast fishing. Underwater explosions may be accidental or planned, such as for construction, seismic testing, mining or blast testing of structures under water. Volcanic emissions resulting in the release of H2S which is very toxic to fish.
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CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF FISH KILL

Knowing and understanding the different causes of fish kill, how can we control or prevent them? First we start with those factors caused

anthropogenically which comprised about 80% of all causes. Foremost among this is anoxia caused by several factors such algal bloom, dumping of high BOD wastes like sewage, garbage, oil, etc.

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CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF FISH KILL

1. Control of hypoxia or oxygen depletion
When algal bloom is apparent, reduce algal bloom density by

chemical treatment using herbicide/algaecide, to maintain SD transparency above 60 cm. Do not kill all the algae but treat 1/3 of your pond/farm at a time and avoid treatment on extremely hot sunny days. Treat early before the onset of calm summer days before April. Do not overstock fish. Avoid over feeding. Use feeding trays to minimize unused feeds from falling down to the bottom.
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CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF FISH KILL

Control of hypoxia or oxygen depletion (contd)
Prevent or minimize surface run-off of wastes with high

BOD load into your immediate surroundings. Check BOD load of sediment under the fishpen area and make sure it does not exceed the WQ criteria. Monitor key WQ parameters such as DO, SD, pH, T, NH3 , Chla. Check DO level daily at the break of dawn during summer or when nearing harvest time. Install an emergency aeration system either subsurface or surface aerators to maintain DO level above 4 mg/L.

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CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF FISH KILL

2. Control of fish disease and parasites General knowledge of fish disease control: Focus on prevention rather than treatment. Knowledge of what pathogens and parasites affect the stock. (see Fig. 4a) Sanitation practices to prevent infection or introduction of pathogens and parasites. Regularly check presence of disease and parasites Diagnosis and treatment of fish diseases Get services of a fish disease specialist or veterinarian
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Control and prevention of fish kill

Fig. 4a. Control of diseases of Tilapia pathogens at different stages of culture

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3. Protocol for Prevention and investigation

A major problem with current fish kill investigations is that there is no

globally accepted standard protocol. Many countries in the developed world have specific provisions in place to encourage the public to report fish kills[30] so that a proper investigation can take place. Investigation of the cause of a kill requires a multi-disciplinary approach including:
a) on-site environmental measurements, b) investigation of inputs, c) review of meteorology and past history, d) toxicology, e) fish autopsy, f) invertebrate analysis and g) a robust knowledge of the area and its problems.

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Protocol for Prevention and investigation

One good protocol to follow is the national investigation and reporting

protocol by the Commonwealth of Australia (2007). It sets a standard minimum requirements for each stage of management of a fish kill incident and includes: a) useful flowcharts, b) information on sampling methods, c) the roles and responsibilities of officers assigned to fish kills investigation, and d) resources for investigating officers. Some states in the USA have their own protocols for fish investigations, but these are localized in approach and difficult to adopt by less developed countries. In view of this, La and Cooke (2011) proposed a framework for a more scientific and systematic approach to fish kill investigation, determining the proximate and ultimate causes and promulgating action plan for its prevention and impact mitigation that can be adopted worldwide (Table 3a).

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Table 3a. Framework for fish kill investigation (adopted from Meyer and Barclay, 1990)
Generalized Investigation Steps 1. Fish kill reported/ suspected 2. Investigator designated Current Status and Challenges Opportunities for Improvement

3. Site visit for reconnaissance

Create training programs for two sets of investigators (1) First responder: general knowledge of fish kills and ability to take samples (2) Specialist: specialized in fish kill research and has knowledge of all assessment methods and investigative tools Few visits per kill; often delayed or Require more site-visits per kill non-existent immediately after fish kill is Implement long-term monitoring reported/suspected programs Create standard protocol No standard protocol
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by fax, mail, or telephone by public Can be tedious and timeconsuming Time lag between fish kill notification and scientific investigation Often regional biologist with little expertise on fish kill investigation

Reporting by web-based submission or phone call using fish kill hotlines Reduce time lag between fish kill notification and scientific investigation

Table 3a. Framework for fish kill investigation (Contd.)

Generalized Investigation Steps 4 Collect chemical, physical, and biological samples Current Status and Challenges Often delayed resulting in degraded samples Few samples taken No control to compare prefish kill to post-fish kill Conditions Often underestimated Scavengers remove carcasses Economist value assessments on species for compensation costs Samples often degraded or limited; difficult for pathological analysis Opportunities for Improvement Implement long-term monitoring programs Take more samples, taking into account biological Variation Consider using reference sites Adopt interdisciplinary approach Take into account scavengers and difficulties in detecting dead fish Continue value assessments of species and number of fish killed for compensation Conduct studies to understand counting biases Collection of more samples immediately after fish kill reported Adopt interdisciplinary approach in data analysis

5 Fish kill count to evaluate resource damage and monetary value assessment

6 Laboratory analysis and database mining

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Table 3a. Framework for fish kill investigation (Contd.)

Generalized Investigation Steps 7. Collate and synthesize information Current Status and Challenges Information prior to fish kill unavailable, difficult to determine causation Most investigations try to identify a single cause, but in reality rarely reveal more than correlation Non-existent in some jurisdictions, while others compile annual regional reports Opportunities for Improvement Consider several factors as most fish kill causes are complex Consider carry-over effects

8 Prepare a report

9 Regulatory or management action response to those causes

Some monitoring; most do not have fish kill management plans Reactive approach to fish kills rather than attempting to predict and prevent events

Implement annual reporting on regional/national/global levels on fish kills Publish case studies in peerreviewed outlets Implement long-term monitoring programs Identify potential causes and structure management action in response to those causes Adopt a proactive approach to fish kill prevention

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National Protocol for prevention and investigation of fish kill

In line with the framework proposed above, the Philippines

should strive to formulate a national protocol for investigation and prevention of fish kills.
The national agencies and instrumentalities involved in the

management of our aquatic and marine resources such as the PCAMRD, BFAR, DENR, LLDA, etc. should collaborate for the formulation of the national protocol.
In the mean time, I would venture to propose a fish kill

management framework plan for Laguna de Bay

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Framework Plan for the Control and Impact Mitigation of Fish Kill in Laguna de Bay
This plan consists of two phases:
Phase 1. Review and Cause Analysis of Fish Kills in Laguna de Bay and Other Places

Based on this review, the causal factors will be identified, classified, and their specific effects will be ascertained based on observation and scientific findings. For quantifiable factors the critical level of toxicity to fish and other impacts will be determined from published data.
Table 1 shows the different factors to be considered.

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Framework Plan for the Control and Impact Mitigation of Fish Kill in Laguna de Bay
Phase 1: Table 1 - Data and information to be collected 1. Spatial data and stocking density Location of fish kill Density of fish pens in the lake (% of surface area, by location i.e. East, West, or South Bay) Stocking rate (number of fingerlings per square meter) Feeding practice (method, frequency and quantity per stocking load) Water depth in the affected area Proximity to anthropogenic sources of toxic pollutants (nearby factories, industrial establishments, agricultural runoffs, sewage & garbage disposal, etc.) 2. Temporal data What season of year fish kill occurred Which months fish kill more prevalent Duration of fish kill 3. Fish health data Occurrence of fish diseases Presence of parasites Other threats to fish health such as toxins, knifefish attacks, etc.
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Framework Plan for the Control and Impact Mitigation of Fish Kill in Laguna de Bay

Phase 1: Table 1 (Contd)

4. Water Quality Data Trend in the bio-physicochemical parameters in the last 20 years Dissolved oxygen (DO) Biochemical /chemical oxygen demand (BOD/COD) Temperature pH Secchi disc readings Chlorophyll a Seasonal variation 5. Hydrological/Meteorological data
6. Water currents in the lake, seasonal changes, Rainfall (monthly and annual data) Wind direction (moonsons months & duration) Etc. Carrying Capacity Study of Laguna de Bay
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Framework Plan for the Control and Impact Mitigation of Fish Kill in Laguna de Bay
Phase 2: Development of a monitoring and warning system for preventing fish kill
Based on the results of Phase 1, a model monitoring and warning system that could prevent or signal an impending fish kill will be developed, tested and deployed in strategic places. Pending the results of Phase 1 study, the conceptual framework for this monitoring system is envisioned to have four components: a) a set of policy and regulatory measures and guideline on fishpen zoning, stocking density, feeding rate and frequency; b) monitoring of key water quality parameters such as pH, Temperature, DO, BOD/COD, Total Ammonia, Secchi disc reading, and Chlorophyll a or algal growth, c) Fish health management measures, and d) stakeholders and communication network.

A set of critical values for key water quality parameters will be formulated to serve as warning or alert levels to institute remedial measures before a critical condition for fish kill is reached. Table 2 shows the conceptual framework for the monitoring and warning system.

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Phase 2: Table 2 Conceptual Framework for the Monitoring and Warning System for Fishkill Prevention
Factors Guideline

1. Policy and regulatory measures to be imposed and monitored Fish pen zoning - based on physiographic and hydrological data Total fishpen area based on carrying capacity data Stocking density must not exceed the optimum or maximum prescribed by BFAR Where to locate, density of fishpens What is total fishpen area to be allowed in the Lake? Maximum number per cubic meter Feeding method, frequency rate, quality and quantity of feed per fingerling,

Feeding practice method, frequency, quality and quantity of feeds, 2 Fish health management measures Fish disease prevention and detection Parasites control Fish farm sanitation practice Aerators

How to detect and prevent fish diseases How to control parasites Proper sanitation practices Need for aerators
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Phase 2: Table 2 (Contd)

Factors Guideline

3. Monitoring of key water quality parameters to detect critical levels* pH Temperature Dissolved Oxygen BOD/COD Total Ammonia Secchi disc transparency (Turbidity) Chlorophyll a or algal growth 6.5 -8.5 Ambient 3oC >5.0 mg/L < 10/20 mg/L 0.17- 0.73 mg/L (pH & T dependent) 20 -40 cm (Class C criteria=100 cm) < 100 g/l (as chlorophyll a) , How to prevent algal bloom

4. Stakeholders and communication network Involvement of stakeholders - (LLDA, LGUs, Fishpen owners, fishermen, etc.) Mass education of the people on the scientific aspect and risk involved Communication network to enhance exchange of information among stakeholders involved

Led by LLDA or a management group Proper education of the people especially fishermen and fishpen operators Set up an early warning system based on modern communication facilities.

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CONCLUSIONS
Review of fish kills events revealed a widespread and worldwide occurrence

of this phenomenon in both freshwater and marine environments. A survey of fish kill reports in 350 major newspapers representing the major continents except South America shows an exponential increase from less than 50 fish kill events per year in the 1970s to about 900 events per year in the 1990s before leveling off beyond year 200. Determination of the causes of fish kills shows that majority (about 70%) are due to anthropogenic activities with only 10.1 % due to natural events, while 23% were unknown or undetermined. Agricultural pollution topped the list of anthropogenic causes with 19.5% followed by biotoxins from harmful algal blooms with 17.2% and the rest with contributions below 10 %. Extreme temperature changes, either too hot or too cold, is the top natural cause of fishkill.
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CONCLUSIONS (Contd)
The common ultimate cause of fish kill reported is low DO (hypoxia or

anoxia) which is associated with urban runoff, algal bloom, decay of organic material, rainfall events, drought and prolonged high temperature, etc. The common control or preventive measures for fish kill are algal bloom prevention, prevention of runoffs with high BOD load, no overstocking, no overfeeding, detection and treatment of fish diseases and parasites, and installation of emergency aeration systems. The need for the formulation of a national protocol for investigation and prevention of fish kills is suggested. A framework plan for the development of a monitoring and warning system for the prevention of fish kills in Laguna de Bay is proposed.

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SALAMAT PO

THANK YOU PO SALAMAT

THANK YOU Arigatgozaimashita ARIGATU GOSAIMAS DESU

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Have a blessed day!

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St. Peters Fish

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