FLORILEGIUM 9, 1987

THE DYNAMICS OF HOLY POWER AS REFLECTED IN NARRATIVE STRUCTURE IN THE LIVES OF ST MARTIN AND ST ANTHONY
Claire Fanger

Sulpicius Severus, in his Dialogues, m akes an em phatic claim for th e supe riority o f St M a rtin to all th e holy m en of th e E ast. A fter a discussion of the w ondrous deeds of som e unnam ed eastern holy men, Sulpicius declares th a t M a rtin s pow ers were all th e m ore im pressive because he was able to m ain tain his sa n c tity despite his contact w ith th e world. Says Sulpicius:
Uli enim ab omni im p e d im e n t liberi, coelo tantu m atque angelis testibus, plane adm irabilia docentur operari : iste in medio coetu et conversatione populorum , inter clericos dissidentes, inter episcopos saevientes, cum fere quotidianis scandalis hinc atque inde prem eretur, inexpugnabili tam en adversus om nia v irtu te fundatus ste tit, et ta n ta operatus est, q u an ta ne illi quidem quos a te audivim us esse in eremo vel fuisse, feceru n t.1 [For [the eastern holy men], free from every im pedim ent, w ith only heaven and the angels as witnesses, clearly were shown how to perform wonders; [but M artin], in the middle of crowds and commerce with people, am ong dissenting clerics, am ong enraged bishops, w ith alm ost daily scandals oppressing him on this side and th a t, nevertheless stood against everything, firmly fixed in invincible power, and perform ed feats so great th a t not even those of whom you have told us, who are or were in the desert, have done such things.]

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Sulpicius is unequivocal in his assertion th a t M a rtin s holiness and, m ore im p o rta n t, th e power of th a t holiness ought to be seen as enhanced, ra th e r th a n dim inished, by th e relative worldliness of his life. In th is an d o th e r w ays Sulpicius works to set M artin a p a rt from the eastern holy m en. Y et despite his a tte m p t, b o th in the Dialogues and th e Vita M artin i, to d elin eate M a rtin s virtus as being in a class by itself, Sulpicius also in co rp o rates in his depiction of M artin m any of th e tra d itio n a l a ttrib u te s by w hich holy m en are characterized in th e eastern vitae. For exam ple, as C lare Stancliffe p o in ts o u t, Sulpicius continues to insist on the extrem e asceticism of M a rtin s life even after his episcopal consecration, an d connects th is asceticism d irectly w ith his power to perform m iracles.2 C ertain ly such deference is only to be expected; for if Sulpicius w anted to show fo rth M a rtin as th e qualified co m p etito r of th e eastern holy m en, he had to show th a t M a rtin could com pete on th eir term s. In a sense, Sulpicius w ants to have his cake a n d e a t it too; like th e eastern saints, M artin m ust o b ta in his holiness, an d co n co m itan t power, from his asceticism ; yet his power, unlike th eirs, m u st be seen to gain a m ysterious increase from the fact th a t he lived a m ore w orldly life. It is n o t h ard to see an elem ent of the paradoxical in S ulp iciu s claim : if A nthony could be accused of m aking th e desert a city, M artin , by living u p to w ilderness stan d ard s of asceticism in closer co n tact w ith th e w orld, m ight equally be accused of m aking th e city into his own p riv a te desert. Like A nthony, M artin was assaulted by dem ons and prevailed; unlike A nthony, M artin prevailed as well in a life am ong men. A nd, if we accept th e te rm s o f Sulpicius ju d g m en t, it was the la tte r victory th a t was th e m ore significant. P eter B row n, in his a rticle E astern an d W estern C hristendom in Late A n tiq u ity , sets o u t som e general distin ctio n s betw een th e relationships o f E astern an d W estern C h ristia n ity to th eir respective holy m en and to the relics in w hich th e ir holy pow er was preserved after th ey had died. T he term s of his d istin ctio n s echo those of Sulpicius w hen he defines the holiness of S t M a rtin as ag ain st th e holy m en of th e E ast. In essence, Brown argues th a t th e holy in th e W est h ad a m ore direct influence on local social an d p o litical pow er stru ctu res. T he eastern holy m an lived a p a rt from society; he g ained his powers from retirin g to th e desert, to th e an tith esis o f h u m an life, w here C h rist h ad been served by th e angels. 3 T h e holy, therefore, ten d ed to m anifest itself by its discontinuity w ith the hum an and w ith no rm al h u m a n expectations; it was a t its m ost holy when least connected w ith th a t conflict of hum an interests which it was constantly called upon to p a llia te . 4 In th e W est, Brown observes,

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A n d y e t t h is [Its] b le s s in g

'h e h o ly . . . c o u ld b e d e fin e d as it w a s in t h e E a s t, in t e r m s o f a s t a r k d is c o n t in u it y b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n a n d th e n o n -h u m a n . . . . d is c o n t in u o u s h o ly is d e e p ly in s e r te d in t o h u m a n s o c ie t y . . . .

is t h o u g h t o f a s t h e in tr u s io n in t o h u m a n life o f t h o s e d e a d m e n a n d w o m e n w h o h a d p e r s e v e r e d in c le a r r o le s w it h in th e h u m a n c o m m u n it y r a th e r t h a n t h e d e s e r t . 5

W h eth er or n o t th is ty p e of d istinction betw een W est and E ast would have been consciously m ade by w estern hagiographers in th e fo u rth cen tu ry (B row n, em phasizing a slightly later period, takes the m ajo rity of his illu strativ e exam ples from th e w ritings of G regory of T ours), it is certain th a t M a rtin s clear role in th e hum an com m unity was a m a tte r to which Sulpicius gave d elib erate em phasis in his p resentation of the saint. T here are o th e r aspects of th e Vita Martini which are interesting to consider in th e light o f B row ns ideas ab o u t th e relationship betw een society and th e holy in E a st an d W est. Brown observes th a t in the W est, the precise locus of th e su p e rn a tu ra l power associated w ith the holy was fixed w ith increasing precision. 6 He elab o rates on th is sta te m e n t by explaining th a t, in th e W est, a relic does n o t m erely enhance the sta tu s o f a church or a locality, giving its favours indiscrim inately to all connected w ith th e site . . . . R ath er, th e co n tact w ith th e holy is used to m ark o u t unam biguously those ind iv id u al m em bers of th e com m unity who enjoyed a p erm an en t sta tu s different from th e re st. 7 Relics m ight confirm or deny w orldly a u th o rity , or behave in ways w hich w ould directly influence those who had responsibility for a d m in istra tio n of th e com m unity. T his could only hap p en , however, if the power of th e holy was confined to a certain location; it m ust be alloted to th e charge of certain individuals and m ust n o t be allowed to proliferate in d iscrim in ately (as it seemed to do in the E ast). In the W est, the localization o f divine power in and around those objects th a t had been associated w ith th e sa in t is integrally tied to the increasing p racticality of th eir function. S ulpicius p resen tatio n of M artin in the Vita reveals several indications of a stro n g concern to d epict m an ifestations of th e holy as precisely localized phenom ena, n o t m erely on th e level of social interaction or a u th o rity b u t also on a m ore concrete, m aterial, and sp atial level. If we com pare the recorded deeds o f M a rtin w ith those of A nthony, certain differences a t once becom e a p p a re n t, b o th in th e concerns of the saints and in th eir m ethods of o p eratio n . M artin is unlike A nthony in his com m itm ent to the destruction of pagan tem ples a n d th e ir replacem ent w ith churches or m onasteries (for we are told th a t it was his custom to build a church or m onastery w herever

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he destroyed a p a g an te m p le ).8 P eculiar to M artin also was his m iraculous u n m ask in g o f th e grave of th e false m arty r; having proved th a t a location reverenced by local villagers as th e to m b of a m a rty r was in fact a b a n d its grave, he set a b o u t d estroying th e shrine th a t h ad been b u ilt there by form er bishops ( V M X I). T h e m iracles connected w ith these doings had im m ediate consequences in th e social sphere, in increasing th e size of th e com m unity o f tru e believers an d ex ten d in g th e a u th o rity of the C hurch. A nd they also show how in tim a te ly pow er in th e com m unity is connected w ith location: M a rtin s p rim e technique for converting large num bers of people a t the sam e tim e w as to identify a n d destroy (generally w ith m iraculous help) the a rc h ite c tu ra l space or lan d scap e in w hich they w orshipped as heathens. His w orry over th e au th e n tic ity of th e m a rty rs to m b shows a sim ilar concern w ith lo cality; in th is in stan ce he u n d erto o k to guide people away from wrong w orship by guiding th e m aw ay from th e location in which such worship to o k place. In his p reo ccu p atio n w ith sacred ground M artin shows a very different ty p e of m o tiv atio n from th a t o f A nthony, whose concerns over land an d te rrito ry are n early all connected w ith his desire to get away from other people. A n o th er featu re which n o ta b ly distinguishes M a rtin s m iraculous deeds specifically those involving healing, exorcism , or raising the dead from sim ilar deeds perform ed by A nthony, is th e im p o rtance of touch in effecting th e m iraculous cure. For M a rtin , th e process of cure nearly always involves physical co n ta c t w ith th e afflicted person or body p a rt, w hether he sim ply touches th e p erson or w h eth er th e touch involves the application of some oil or salve. W here cures are effected in M a rtin s absence, they are likely to involve to u ch in g th e invalid w ith som e o b ject associated w ith M artin, such as a letter. A n th o n y s cures, by co n trast, are nearly always described as being effected eith er by th e pow er of his prayers or by a m ore nebulous power o p era tin g th ro u g h A n th o n y whose a ctu al m echanism is left undescribed. Touch (save in th e case of one exorcism )9 is not m entioned; there is no ap p licatio n o f salves or oils, an d no recognizable m edical procedures are involved in an y o f his cures. A n th o n y s a ctu al presence a t the scene o f the healing is, in m an y cases, n o t even necessary. True, Sulpicius does ascribe to M artin som e cures effected in th e s a in ts absence and by th e power of his prayers an d fastin g alone. T hese, however, com prise a m inority o f the to ta l nu m b er o f his cures, an d for w hatever reason account o f all of them ap p ears in th e Dialogues; in th e Viia th ere is no cure described which does n o t involve th e touch o f M artin or th e touch of some object associated w ith him .

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T h ; im p o rta n c e accorded M a rtin s physical presence and touch in ef fecting healings an d exorcism s indicates a concept of holy power ten d in g to m anifest itself w ith in local boundaries. T h e s a in ts virtus em anates from a set of specific p o in ts (th e s a in ts body and those objects which have been in co n tact w ith th e s a in ts body) and o p erates m ost effectively w ithin a close range of one o f these p oints. In th e Vita A n to n ii the s a in ts virtus is presented as o p e ra tin g in a very different way. A n th o n y s physical location does n o t have n early as direct a relationship to the m an ifestations of his power as does M a rtin s. In fact, A n th o n y s m ore characteristic m iracles often involve causing th in g s to h appen at som e remove from his person or seeing or know ing a b o u t th in g s th a t have happened far away. From th is o u tlin e it m ay be seen th a t th e h agiographers representa tions of th e tw o sain ts involve concepts of holy power which show radical differences in th e ir m echanism . Some of these differences are readily ac counted for as m a n ifestatio n s of B row ns p arad ig m of eastern and w estern C h ristia n ity ; yet it is p a te n t th a t there is m ore to be said. B row ns tre a t m ent of th e su b je c t is sweeping, and he strives for no m ore th a n a general a rticu la tio n of m ain p oints. M ore specific questions hang fire: Do th e saints, as represented by th e ir hagiographers, seem to u n d erstan d the o p eratio n of th eir own pow er? If so, how is th is u n d erstan d in g represented? W h a t kind of em phasis does S ulpicius p u t on th e fact th a t M artin m u st have physical contact w ith his p a tie n ts in order to cure th em ? A nd if A n th o n y s cures seldom require physical con tact, is th is fact em phasized by his biographers? If so, how are we inform ed th a t he is in fact th e o perative link betw een G od and th e p a tie n t? Is th e stru c tu re of th e relationship betw een th e hum an and th e divine reflected in th e stru c tu re o f these n arratives? Such ques tions a b o u t th e o p eratio n s of holy power m ay best be answ ered by in-depth ex am in atio n of th e biographies of th e m en who wielded it. To a tte m p t a com plete and detailed analysis o f the two vitae would be a p roject beyond th e scope of th e present pap er. However, to give som e idea of w h at such an analysis m ight reveal, it is m y intention here to m ake a detailed com parison of tw o sets of stories th e first involving exorcism , the second involving healing from th e lives of M artin and A nthony. T h e stories are draw n from E vagrius L atin version of A th a n a siu s Life o f A n th o n y ,10 and from S u lpicius Vita M artini (though I m ake occasional reference to the Di alogues). M y p rim ary in terest here is to see w hat the n arrativ e stru c tu re of the stories reveals a b o u t th e o p eratio n of holy power in each sain t. T hrough a close reading of specific m iracle stories, using m ethods of literary an aly sis, it should be possible to a rticu late in m ore specific term s how each saint

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functio n ed as a focus of divine power. It is hoped th a t such an ex am ination will aid in refining an d clarifying B row ns paradigm . Let us begin by considering a set of exorcisms. M artin
Per idem tem pus, in eodem oppido, ingressus p atris fam ilias cuiusdam domum, in lim ine ipso re stitit, dicens horribile in atrio domus daem onium se uidere. C ui cum u t discederet im peraret, cocum p atris fam ilias qui in interiore p arte aedium m o rab atu r, arripuit, saeuire dentibus miser coepit, et obuios quosque laniare. C om m ota domus, fam ilia tu rb ata, populus in fugam uersus. M artinus se furenti obiecit, ac prim um stare ei im perat. Sed cum dentibus frem eret hiantique ore m orsum m inaretur, digitos ei M artinus in os in tu lit: si habes, inquit, aliquid p o te sta tis, hos devora. Turn vero, ac si candens ferrum faucibus accepisset, longe reductis dentibus digitos beati viri v ita b at attin gere; et cum fugere de obsesso corpore poenis et cruciatibus cogeretur, nec tam en exire ei per os liceret, foeda relinquens vestigia fluxu ventris egestus est. ( V M X VII) [In th e sam e tim e period, in th e sam e town, upon entering th e house of a certain householder, he stopped right at th e threshold saying th a t he saw a horrible dem on in th e front room of the house. W hen he ordered it to dep art it took possession of th e householders cook, who was lingering in th e interior p a rt of th e building, and the w retched m an began to do violence w ith his teeth and to lacerate those who got in his way. T he house was in an uproar, th e servants were all upset, th e people turned in flight. M artin threw him self in front of the m adm an and first ordered him to be still; b u t when he gnashed his te eth and th reatened, w ith gaping m outh, to bite, M artin stuck his fingers into his m outh. If you have any pow er, he said, eat these. And then, as if he had received a glowing poker in his jaws, he drew his teeth far back as he avoided touching the fingers of the blessed man. And when [the demon] was forced by its pains and torm ents to flee the possessed body and yet it was not p erm itted to exit through th e m outh it was discharged in a stream from th e bowels leaving a trail of filth.]

A nthony
Alius quoque ad eum vir, in ter suos nobilis, daemoniosus adducitur, ta n ta oppressus insania, u t non sciret se esse apud Antonium , necnon et corporis sui superflua com ederet. Q uam obrem rogatus senex ab his qui eum adduxeran t u t pro illo D om inum oraret, in tan tu m juvenis miseriae condoluit, u t to ta nocte pervigilans cum eo, adversus patientis insaniam lab o raret. Sed cum jam lucesceret, et obsessus, im petu in A ntonium facto, vehem enter eum impulisset, irasci coeperunt qui eum adduxerant, cur seni fecisset injuriam . Q uibus A ntonius ait: Nolite alienam culpam juveni misero ascribere: furor iste obsidentis est, non obsessi. Idcirco autem in hanc proruit dolens hostis audaciam , quia Dominus ad aridam regionem ire eum jussit; et expulsi S atanae indicium iste adversum m e im petus fuit. N ulla post verba mora, adolescens recepto

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sen <u, et gratias agens Deo, et locum ubi esset, agnovit, et to to A ntonium com plexans deosculatus est affectu. ( VA XXXVI) [And another m an was brought to him, a noble among his own people, who was dem onically possessed by a m adness so great th a t he did not know th a t he was w ith Anthony, nor th a t he was eating his own bodily discharge. For this reason, when those who had brought him asked the old m an to pray to the Lord on his behalf, he so much pitied the wretchedness of the youth th a t he stayed awake w ith him the entire night toiling against the insanity of his patient. B ut presently when day broke, and the possessed man, having m ade a rush at Anthony, gave him a violent push, those who had brought him there began to get angry because he m ight have done an injury to the old m an. A nthony said to them : w Do not ascribe to the w retched youth a sin not his own. T h a t rage comes from the possessor, not the possessed. Moreover th e sorrowful enemy has fallen into a fit of pique because the Lord has com m anded him to go into the dry desert and th a t push against me was the sign of S ata n s expulsion. Shortly after these words the youth, in his right m ind and thanking God, b oth recognized the place where he was and, em bracing Anthony, kissed him w ith com plete fondness.]

I have placed these two stories in apposition not only because they b o th involve exorcising dem ons of sim ilar behaviour b u t also because b o th involve the s a in ts physical contact w ith th e p atien t. In A n th o n y s case th e contact is n o t in ten tio n al, being no m ore th a n an accidental m anifestation of the d ep artin g dem on. A nd yet th is physical con tact serves a specific purpose in th e story, since it allows A nthony to d em o n strate th a t his un d erstan d in g of th e situ a tio n is m ore com plete th a n th a t of th e surrounding onlookers. A nthony has stayed up all n ig h t w ith his p a tie n t, praying and w atching w ith him , an d presum ably it is sim ply th e fact of A n th o n y s a tte n tio n to th e situ a tio n th a t has been th e p rincipal force in com pelling th e dem on to leave. T h e way in which th is force o perates is n ot readily intelligible , however; for A n th o n y s mere presence seems to have no im m ediate effect on the possessed y o u th a t all, and even th e eventual physical contact betw een him self an d th e young m an is not presented as the cause o f the d em o n s expulsion b u t ra th e r as a result of it. Indeed, th e actu al a c t o f exorcism seems to take place, n o t in th e o rd in ary world in habited by ourselves and the bystanders, b u t above it, in th e otherw orld of su p e rn atu ra l powers a place to which only A nthony has access. T h e p o in t o f th e story, th en , is not m erely to dem onstrate th a t A nthony was able to expel th e dem on, b u t also to show how he was able to explain th e d e m o n s b ehaviour from his in tim a te knowledge of happenings in the sp iritu a l realm . T h e fam ily of th e possessed youth naively supposes th a t the sudden a tta c k on A nthony was willed by th e young m an; A nthony knows

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th a t th e actio n s o f th e young m an are n o t th e result o f his own will, b u t are caused by an o th er. F u rth er, he knows th a t th e push was the dem o n s final act of aggression, and th a t th e y o u th will now recover from his indisposition. A n th o n y s actio n in praying for th e possessed youth m ust thus be seen as an a tte m p t to m ake co n ta c t w ith th e su p e rn a tu ra l world to find out w h a t is really h ap p en in g as m uch as an a tte m p t to control th e dem ons exits a n d en tran ces. W hen he reveals th e cause of th e young m a n s a ttack on his p erson, he explains it as a m an ifestatio n of th e dem ons annoyance a t being com m anded by G od to go in to th e desert. How would he know th is if he him self had n o t overheard th e L o rd s com m and and observed the d em o n s response? W h a t is m arvellous is n o t m erely th a t he has served as a co n d u it for G o d s power in healing th e y o u th , b u t th a t he has app aren tly w itnessed w ith o u t m ed iatio n th e confro n tatio n betw een G od and th e dem on, a co n fro n tatio n which was visible to th e rest only by signs and tokens. T h e s a in ts know ledge o f th e otherw orld is im p o rta n t in th e M artin ian sto ry as well, b u t in a q u ite different way. Here, the story begins w ith M a rtin s w itnessing of a dem on th a t is invisible to o th er people. However, from th e m ere seeing of th e dem on which opens the story M a rtin goes on to get progressively closer to th e evil sp irit, finally m aking in tentional physical co n ta c t w ith th e possessed m an , which directly causes th e dem ons expulsion. S ulpicius describes w ith some care th e set of physical and sp atial relatio n sh ip s w hich fram e th e events of th e n arrativ e. E ntering a house, M artin p auses on th e th resh o ld (in limine) because he sees a dem on in the fro n t ro o m ( in atrio). He com m ands th e dem on to leave, w hereupon it takes possession o f th e h ouseholders cook, who was lingering fu rth e r inside th e b u ild in g (in interiore parte aedium). Since th e dem on was presum ably b arre d from leaving th e house by th e fro n t door (in the sam e way th a t it was la te r b a rre d from ex itin g th e householders cook by th e m o u th ), we m ay e x tra p o la te th a t th e dem on p ro b ab ly in ten d ed to exit the house by the back door an d capriciously decided to grab a hu m an victim on its way. Beyond th e d em o n s progression from th e front p a rt of the house tow ard th e back, we n o te th a t it h a s also receded to a fu rth e r in teriority: deterred by M a rtin s com m and from occupying th e in terio r o f th e house it has w ithdraw n to th e in terio r o f one of th e h o useholders servants. In a sort of cat and m ouse gam e, M a rtin closes in on it. H aving entered th e house, he th ru sts him self in fro n t of th e rav in g m a d m a n an d orders h im to be still. T h e dem on, enraged by M a rtin s proxim ity, causes th e possessed m an to gnash his te eth still m ore an d to th re a te n M artin w ith physical violence. M artin th en realizes th a t verbal com m ands will n o t be enough, and, as he had followed th e demon

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into th e house, now follows it in to th e householders servant by th ru stin g his fingers dow n th e m a n s th ro a t. T he dem on responds to M a rtin s touch as if to th e p ain of a w hite h o t iron and quickly recedes from th e possessed body by, as it were, th e back door. It was im p o rta n t for Sulpicius to em phasize th a t M artin h a d knowledge of the hostile dem on (an d thus, in some sense, of the events a b o u t to happen) prior to anyone else in th e story. To this exten t M artin resem bles A nthony. However, th e p resen tatio n of M a rtin s foreknowledge does n o t seem to be an end in itself; it is used to set up th e n arrativ e rath er th a n to finish it off, and serves ra th e r as a technique to build suspense th an as a denouem ent. T he sto ry indeed seem s to be designed to p u t us in suspense; our sense th ro u g h o u t is t h a t M artin is m m ore danger th a n A nthony ever was, even though th e th re a t of physical violence is present in both n arratives. One does n o t have to look far to find reasons for this. N ote th a t M artin did n o t have to go o u t of his way to find th e demon; he did n o t have to m ake a special effort to con tact the su p ern atu ral world, nor did he seek out th e dem on in a deserted place or tom b. R ather, the dem on seems to have sought M artin o u t; it has forsaken th e otherw orld to make an ap p earan ce on e arth , in a place w here it m anifestly does not belong: the dw elling o f a local householder. Sm all w onder, then, th a t M a rtin s jo b seems m ore dangerous th a n A n th o n y s: th e desert, w ith its ghostly presences, its m onsters and its dem ons, has begun to encroach upon th e city. M artin, no longer a m ere gobetw een, has becom e m ore of a border guard, the protector of th e b o undary betw een th a t w orld an d this. Hence Sulpicius em phasis on boundaries, and hence also our sense of th e danger M artin was in; he follows th e dem on into th e house m uch as Beowulf follows G rendel into th e m ere. Sulpicius lays stress on enclosure, on proxim ity, on entrance and exit, so th a t we m ay com prehend sy m p a th e tic a lly th e risk th a t M artin took. We end up feeling th a t we have w itnessed th e actu al process of th e exorcism a t m uch closer h an d th a n we did in th e case o f A nthony. A nd so, in a sense, we have. For the act o f exorcism in th e story of M artin takes place very m uch in this world th e w orld o f th e innocent bystander and the world o f the reader. Let us look n ex t a t a set of healings. M artin
C urationum vero ta m potens in eo g ratia erat, u t nullus fere ad eum aegrotus accesserit, qui non continuo receperit sanitatem . Q uod vel ex conse q u e n t liquebit exemplo. Treveris puella quaedam d ira paralysis aegritudine tenebatur, ita ut iam per m ultum tem pus nullo ad humanos usus corporis officio fungeretur: omni ex parte praem ortua vix tenui sp iritu p alp itab at. T ristes ad solam funeris expectationem adstabant propinqui, cum subito ad

FLO RILEG IU M 9, 1987 civitatem illam M artinum venisse n untiatur. Q uod ubi puellae p ater conperit, cu rrit exanim is pro filia rogaturus. E t forte M artinus iam ecclesiam fuerat ingressus. Ibi, spectante populo m ultisque aliis praesentibus episcopis, eiulans senex genua eius am plectitur, dicens: filia m ea m o ritu r misero genere languoris, et, quod ipsa est m orte crudelius, solo sp iritu vivit, iam carne praem ortua. Rogo u t earn adeas adque benedicas: confido enim quod per te reddenda sit sa n ita ti. Q ua ille voce confusus obstipuit, et refugit dicens hoc suae non esse v irtu tis, senem errare iudicio, non esse se dignum per quem Domi nus signum v irtu tis ostenderet. P erstare vehem entius flens p ater et orare u t exanim em visitaret. Postrem o, a circum stantibus episcopis ire conpulsus, de scendit ad dom um puellae. Ingens tu rb a pro foribus, expectans quidnam Dei servus esset facturus. Ac prim um , quae erant illius fam iliaria in istius modi rebus arm a, solo p ro stratu s oravit. Deinde, aegram intuens, dari sibi oleum p o stu lat. Q uod cum benedixisset, in os puellae vim sancti liquoris infundit, statim q u e vox red d ita est. Turn paulatim singula contactu eius coeperunt m em bra vivescere, donec firm atis gressibus populo teste surrexit. ( VM XVI) [So pow erful in him was the grace of healing th a t hardly any sick person came to him who did n o t im m ediately recover health, as th e following exam ple will m ake plain. A certain young girl of Treves was in th e grip of a severe paralytic illness, so th a t for a long tim e now she had no use of th e hum an functions of her body. D ead in every p art, she barely trem bled w ith th e slightest b rea th [spirit] of life. Her sorrowing relations were standing by in th e sole expectation of her d eath, when suddenly it was announced th a t M artin had come to the city. W hen the girls father heard this, he ran breathless to ask [M artins intervention] on behalf of his daughter. By chance M artin had ju st now entered th e church; here, w ith the people looking on, and w ith m any other bishops present, the old m an, lam enting aloud, em braced his knees and said: My d aughter is dying w ith a wretched kind of sickness, and one th a t is m ore cruel th a n d ea th itself; in breath [spirit] alone she lives, in flesh she is dead already. I ask th a t you go to her and bless her, for I believe th a t through you she m ay be restored to health. [M artin], confused by th is speech, was dum bfounded and shrank back, saying th a t th is was not in his powers, th a t th e old m an m ade an error in judgm ent, th a t he was n o t w orthy th a t the Lord should show a sign of power through him. Weeping harder, th e father insisted, and pleaded for M artin to visit the dying girl. Finally, com pelled to leave by th e surrounding bishops, he went down to th e girls house. T here was a huge crowd before the doors awaiting w hatever th e servant of God was ab o u t to do. A nd first this was a fam iliar arm am ent of his in things of this kind he p ro strate d himself on the ground and prayed. N ext, looking a t th e sick girl, he asked th a t some oil be given to him . W hen he had blessed it, he poured th e potency of the sanctified liquid into the g irls m outh, and im m ediately her voice returned. T hen, bit by bit, each of her lim bs began to revive by its contact, until, as the people attest, she rose up on steady feet.]

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A nthony
Virgo vero quaedam , quae de Busiris T ripolitanae regionis civ itate ibidem erat, inauditis ac flebilibus morbis laborabat. Etenim narium purgam enta, oculorum lacrym ae, aurium putridus humor in terram cadens confestim in vermes vertebantur. A ugebat calam itatem corpus paralysi dissolutum , oculos quoque perversos co n tra natu ram habens. Hanc parentes ejus deferentes, cum ad A ntonium monachos ire didicissent; credentes in Domino, qui pertinacem sanguinis fluxum in Evangelio tactu fimbriae stare praeceperat rogaverunt u t m iserabilem filiae com itatum susciperent. Illis renitentibus earn usque ad A n tonium perducere, rem ansere parentes ejus foris cum filia debili apud b eatu m confessorem et m onachum Paphnutium , qui effossis pro C hristo oculis sub M axim iano persecutore, tali dehonestam ento corporis plurim um gloriabatur. P ervenerunt ig itu r ad A ntonium monachi. Cum que de m orbo puellae referre disponerent, relationem eorum senis sermo praevenit; et omnem d eb ilitatis et itineris usque ad sanctum P aphnutium causam, quasi ipse interfuisset, exposuit. R ogantibus autem eum monachis, ut parentibus cum filia p erm ittere tu r ingressus, non concessit, sed ait: Ite, et invenietis puellam , si non est m ortua, curatam . E t adjecit: Nullus debet ad meam hum ilitatem venire, quia largitio curationum non est hum anae miseriae, sed Jesu C hristi m isericordiae, qui ubique in se credentibus praestare consuevit auxilium . Q uam obrem et ilia, pro qua p etitis, suis precibus lib erata est; et cum ad Dominum orarem ego, m ihi praescientia san itatis ejus indulta est. Dixit, et verba ejus puellae incolum itas secuta est. Nam exeuntes foras ad beatum P aphnutium , et filiam sospitem , et parentes laetos repererunt. (VA XXX) [A certain young girl who was from the same city of Busiris in the region of Tripoli suffered w ith a set of bizarre and lam entable com plaints. For the discharge from her nose, th e tears from her eyes, and a stinking liquid th a t cam e out of her ears all turned into worms im m ediately upon falling to earth. It m ade m a tte rs worse th a t her body had slipped into paralysis w ith the eyes u nnaturally crossed. Her parents, giving an account of her when they had learned th a t some monks were going to A nthony (and believing in the Lord, who, in th e Gospel, had ordered a persistent issue of blood to stop w ith a touch of his hem ), had asked them if they would receive the girls unhappy retinue into their company. As they refused to bring her all the way to Anthony, th e parents rem ained some distance away w ith the crippled girl, at the house of the blessed monk and confessor Paphnutius (who, having had his eyes gouged out for C hrist under the persecutor M aximian, gloried much in this disfigurem ent of his body). T he monks therefore went on to Anthony. A nd when they purposed to tell about the sickness of the girl, the old m an s speech prevented them ; and he described every im p o rtan t fact of the illness and of the journey all th e way to holy Paphnutius, as if he him self had been am ong them . Moreover, when the monks asked him if the parents and their daughter m ight be perm itted entry, he refused, b u t said: Go, and you will find th a t if the girl is not dead she is cured. And he added: People ought not to come to me, hum ble as I am, since the gift of healing belongs not to hum an misery, b u t to Jesus mercy; He is accustomed to furnish help to those

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FLO R IL E G IU M 9, 1987 believing in him everywhere. For which reason the girl on whose behalf you petition is liberated by her own prayers. And since I have been praying to G od, foreknowledge of her cure has been granted m e. He spoke, and the g irls cure followed his words. For going out to the blessed P aphnutius, they found the girl healthy and her parents happy.]

In b o th stories we find th e sa in ts refusing to approach th eir patients; b o th claim to be u nw orthy o f th e fa ith placed in th em by the petitioners; b o th deny th a t th e pow er o f healing belongs to them . In each n arrative, however, th e sequence o f events sets u p an entirely different context for in te rp re ta tio n of these sta te m e n ts. In th e case o f A nthony th e disclaim er com es n ear th e end o f th e story; also, it occurs after a t least p a rt of the m iracle has been perform ed. Here, as w ith the exorcism discussed previ ously, th e revealing o f A n th o n y s superio r knowledge is p a rt o f th e p o int of th e story; he has alread y im pressed th e m onks (and presum ably th e reader) w ith a p o in t by p o in t account o f th e g irls illness and her journey. An th o n y s d enial o f his own pow er form s p a rt of a fu rth er disclosure on the n a tu re of th e sp iritu a l events a b o u t to occur; he explains to th e m onks th a t cures come only from G od, n o t m en, an d th a t hence the g irls own fa ith and prayers are d irectly responsible for her healing. He a ttrib u te s his knowledge of th is event to th e fact th a t he has also been praying to G od, b u t claim s no fu rth e r responsibility for th e cure. T h e reader m u st n o t, o f course, be so com placent as to to take A n th o n y s denial of his own pow er a t face value. I t should first of all be noted th a t th e p a tte rn o f th e n a rra tiv e is reflective of a certain ty p e o f G ospel m iracle story, which cu lm in ates in Je su s assertion th a t th e p a tie n ts own fa ith has caused th e healing. In th e G ospel, these sta te m e n ts are coloured by C h rists typically p arab o lic way of speaking; th ey seem open ended and enigm atic, in p a rt because even here C h rist is involved in the verbal dissem ination o f sp iritu a l tru th s which m ay be conveyed only in a veiled form , b u t in p a rt also because no one p resent in fact d oubts for a m om ent th a t it is C h rist who is d irectly responsible for th e cure. His assertion th a t th e cure was not caused by h im is th u s som ething to be pondered a n d expounded, ra th e r th a n accepted an d fo rg o tten . A nth o n y likewise propounds statem en ts which have som eth in g o f th e q u ality o f enigm a; his denial of his healing pow ers m ust in th is context be in terp reted not m erely as a direct assertion of his hum ility, b u t also as an indirect assertion of his divinity. Indeed, th e p aren th etic reference to th e w om an w ith th e issue of blood in th e th ird sentence seem s designed to m ake th e association of A nthony w ith C hrist unavoidable; for th is G ospel sto ry is one which ends Filia, fides tu a salvam

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te fecit. ( D au g h ter, your faith has m ade you well, M a tt. 9:22, cf. Luke 8:48). T h ere is, however, one salient difference between the G ospel sto ry and the sto ry of St A nthony: th e wom an w ith th e issue of blood is healed w hen she touches th e hem of C h ris ts garm ent; the w om an from th e city of Busiris never gets anyw here near A nthony. In Lukes G ospel it is m ade ab u n d a n tly clear th a t th is act of touching was independently significant in the process o f th e cure, since C hrist says im m ediately afterw ards: T etigit me aliquis: n a m ego novi v irtu te m de me exiisse. ( Som eone has touched me: for I know th a t power has gone o u t of m e, 8:46).11 In this regard it m ay well be th a t th e m ost significant th in g ab o u t the G ospel reference in A n th o n y s m iracle sto ry is th e fact th a t allusion to th is healing touch has been suppressed. T h ere is ano th er indirect allusion to th e w om an w ith the issue o f blood la te r on in th e Vita A n to n ii (C ap. X LII), where we are told th a t th e people A m biebant quoque saltern fim briam vestim enti ejus attin g ere, m u ltu m sibi et ta c tu m prodesse credentes. ( T hey also flocked ab o u t [A nthony] to touch a t least th e hem of his robe, believing th a t the touch would m uch benefit th e m . ) We are n ot told w hether any effect followed th is touch (either in general or in any p a rtic u lar case), and are left to in te rp re t for ourselves E vagrius oddly am biguous use of th e word credentes. I t really ought to have a positive co nnotation in a sto ry of this kind, im pressing us w ith th e strong faith of th e people; yet its effect b o th here and in th e healing story is to leave us w ondering if the people involved were n o t in som e degree m erely credulous. T h is effect is pro b ab ly deliberate. A nthony is not C h rist or ra th er n ot quite. C h rist lived here in th e flesh only once; he is n ot here any more. O r ra th e r he is here, b u t shows him self only through visions and signs and tokens, th ro u g h enigm atic m anifestations of his power. A nthony is and is not here in th e sam e way th a t C hrist is and is not here, an d he poses a sim ilar kind o f riddle for his followers. T h e riddle, however, is now a t one remove from its origin; it has becom e a b it m ore puzzling, a b it harder to answer. A n th o n y s deeds of power seem to require a good deal of explana tion; they te n d to be w rapped up in words and signs, in n arra tiv e of the unseen events su rro u n d in g odd occurences. A nthony him self is likewise a sign of pow er, a n d conversely it m ight be said th a t his power is the power of signs: it generates and tra n sm its m eaning, it is quite a rb itra rily connected w ith his person, it operates a t a distance. C h rists power m ight operate a t a distance, b u t th e theological im plications of his physical, carnal pres ence were alw ays im p o rta n t too; A n th o n y s carnal presence is consistently, significantly suppressed.

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N ot so w ith M a rtin . As in th e sto ry of th e exorcism , M a rtin s bodily presence is im p o rta n t: th e cure does n o t occur until he has approached the girl, an d his physical d istan ce from th e p a tie n t is always known. T he g irls fa th e r finds M a rtin in th e church, pleads w ith him to come, and finally leads him to her house. M a rtin begins by praying, th en pours into her m o u th some oil w hich he h as consecrated an d in to which the divine power has passed. T h e girl p ro m p tly recovers th e use of her lim bs, contactu eius a t the touch o f th e holy liq u id .12 T h is final sentence provides a brief b u t graphic sketch o f th e process w hich is supposed to be occurring inside th e girl: her voice is resto red im m ed iately as th e oil comes into contact w ith her vocal cords, an d we can im agine its subsequent diffusion th ro u g h o u t her body, as it is m ore slowly ab so rb ed in to her system th ro ugh the digestive tra c t. We are th u s m ad e w itness to th e a c tu a l process of the cure, and we are left in no d o u b t th a t th e cure h as occurred th ro u g h M a rtin s direct agency. P aradoxically, M a rtin s denial of th e power of healing which th e g irls fa th e r a ttrib u te d to h im earlier in th e sto ry serves only to em phasize the fact of his agency. T h e old m an h a d said confido quod per te reddenda sit s a n ita ti. ( I believe th a t through you she m ay be restored to h e a lth . ) M a rtin s d enial of such pow er is express an d specific: unlike A nthony, he does n o t m erely assert th a t he is a m o rta l m an and th a t th e pow er of cures is denied m o rta l m en in general; ra th e r, he claim s th a t non esse se dig n u m per quem D om inus signum v irtu tis ostenderet. ( He was not w orthy th a t th e L ord sh o u ld show a sign of power through h i m ) In this sentence, th e m echanism o f tran sm issio n of G o d s power is m ore clearly intelligible th a n it ever was in th e sto ry of A nthony. Its op eratio n is m ade to a p p e a r sim ilar to t h a t o f electricity; it moves th ro u g h specific conduits and its tran sm issio n proves an d enhances th e w orth o f the person serving as co n d u it. M a rtin is n o t in d o u b t th a t a m an m ay be significantly operative in tran sm issio n of G o d s power; he d o u b ts only th a t he personally is w orthy to be considered for th e task . T h e circum stances of th e story guide the read er in in te rp re ta tio n o f th is disclaim er: prior to the occurrence of any m iraculous events, M a rtin denies his ab ility to perform m iracles; a t the urging of th e bishops, he goes to th e girl an d perform s the m iraculous cure anyway. T h e read er is th u s led to th e conclusion th a t M artin was sim ply wrong; he h a d u n d e re stim a te d his own w orth. G od had, in fact, chosen him to be th e focus, co n d u it, an d storehouse of divine power. W hereas in th e case o f A nthony th e denial of power served as an enig m atic assertion b o th o f th e s a in ts hum ility and his divinity, in th e case of M artin th e denial o f pow er serves as a straig h tforw ard assertion of hum ility.

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T he denial is n o t m ade p a rt o f th e m iraculous events them selves; it is n o t to be read as sem e or m orphem e which m akes p a rt of the sign of power. T he sign o f pow er comes a t a la te r p o in t in th e story, and contradicts th e earlier w ords o f M artin . T h e healing represents som ething new, th e p oint at which signifier is m om entarily contiguous w ith signified, th e sudden ju n c tu re where divine power is m anifested as power in a sign. M a rtin s virtus m ight be defined as th e fact th a t such a contiguity is able to occur th ro u g h him : th e arb itra ry , enigm atic, fallen n a tu re of th e sign, which is so carefully preserved in th e story of A nthony, is m iraculously controverted by M artin. W hereas th ro u g h A nthony th e op eratio n s of th e heavenly and su p e rn a tu ra l world are m ade visible in signs and tokens, through M artin , the heavens leap to earth . We begin now to gain a clearer u n d erstan d in g of why Sulpicius Severus insisted so vehem ently on th e su p eriority o f M a rtin s virtus over th a t of A nthony an d o th er eastern holy m en of th e sam e style. M a rtin s power, located so firm ly in th e city, was able to be o f far m ore use th a n A n th o n y s. T his is tru e n o t m erely because proxim ity m ade it easier for M artin to help people a n d n o t m erely because M artin was able to m ain tain his holy power steadily in sp ite o f th e stress an d stra in of city life, b u t because it was a m ore useful kind of power to begin w ith. Its locus was certain; its effects were im m ediate; its action was visible. M artin brought the heavens down to e arth an d G o d in to th e house. His deeds o f power, by m om entarily strip p in g am big u ity a n d enigm a from th e sign, re-clothed the word in flesh. In th e in tro d u c to ry p a rt of th is p ap er I w rote som ew hat facetiously of M artin m aking, by his ascetic practices, th e city a desert. In fact, th e desert appears to have entered th e city before M artin ever got there. T he city here m ust be tak en to be synonym ous w ith th e sublunary world, w ith the te rrito ry th a t belongs or ought to belong to men; as a sp iritu a l location, it is opposed b o th to th e desert and to th e heavens, when the proper relations exist betw een them . W hen th e p roper relations do not exist, when dem ons invade th e w orld, th e n th e heavens also m ust find an ad it. In an age where S atan m ig h t a p p e a r anyw here in a m onastery wielding a bloody ox-horn or in th e living room of th e average householder m any people m ust have been gratefu l th a t G od found such an a d it in M artin. B ut there is m ore to it th a n this. It was not m erely th a t M a rtin s powers were necessary to th e city, b u t th a t th e city was necessary to M a rtin s powers. As Sulpicius h ints, it m ade th em greater th a n they otherw ise m ight have been. In th e n arrativ es previously discussed, we have seen how careful Sulpicius is to give us a sense of M a rtin s location, and how location is used

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to build ten sio n in th e stories. M a rtin s power requires interiors, churches, houses, or crow ded street corners, to be adequately showcased. T he sam e stories could n o t have been to ld of som eone who sa t alone, having visions u n d er th e o pen sky. U nder such conditions, it is barely possible to im agine how pow er as g re a t as M a rtin s could m anifest itself. Power like M a rtin s requires a definite location, an d only in th e world, in th e city, do such definite lo catio n s exist; for only in th e w orld does it m a tte r where you are. In th e d esert, in th e region of airy powers, one place is m uch like an o th er for all p ra c tic a l purposes. T h is is so tru e th a t it is difficult to tell w hether A n th o n y s own proper sphere is th e desert or heaven itself. It is certainly n o t th e world; there is a way in w hich A nth o n y h a rd ly seem s to exist in the world a t all. He appears alw ays to be possessed o f an in tim a te knowledge o f events in the su p e rn a tu ral w orld. He often seems well inform ed a b o u t events in th e n a tu ra l w orld as well, b u t th is know ledge also com es to him from a su p ern a tu ral plane. T he physical lo c a tio n of his person has little to do w ith the m anifestations of his pow er, w hich seem to occur som ew hat w antonly, now near a t h an d , now far away. If th e m odel for M a rtin s tran sm issio n of power is electric, A n th o n y s m ig h t be described as telegraphic. A nd th e m etap h o r is, for th e m om ent, an a p t one, considering th e fact th a t A nthony is concerned as m uch w ith th e tran sm issio n of m eaning as th e transm ission of power. T h is does n o t m ean th a t he or his actions are always readily intelligible. T h ey are n o t, b u t th is is n o t his fau lt; th e problem of intelligibility lies in th e w orld, w hich is not really his territo ry . W hen G od shows signs o f power th ro u g h A nthony, these m an ifestatio n s p a rta k e m ore of the n a tu re of signs as we know th e m . T h ey are m ean t to be interp reted. T h is is n o t a denial of th eir m iracu lo u s n a tu re , b u t ra th e r a d em o n stratio n of it; for how could any m a n ife sta tio n o f G od am ong m en be readily intelligible to a fallen world? T h u s A nthony, so concerned w ith intelligibility, rem ains him self som ething of a w alking enig m a, a so rt of flesh m ad e word. C entre for M edieval S tu d ies/U n iv ersity of T oronto

NOTES

* D ia log u s I C a p . X X IV , fo llo w in g th e e d itio n in th e P a tr o lo g ia L a tin a , 2 0 .1 8 3 -2 0 2 . 2 C lare S ta n c liffe , St M a r t i n an d his Hagiograp her ( O x f o r d 1 983) 1 5 1 -5 3 . 3 P e te r B ro w n , E a ste rn an d W estern C h risten d o m in L a te A n tiq u ity , in S ociety a n d the Holy in L a te A n t i q u i t y (N ew York 1 982) 181.

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4 B row n (a t n . 3 ) 182. B row n (a t n . 3 ) 1 9 1 -9 2 . B row n (a t n . 3 ) 178. 7 B row n (a t n . 3 ) 1 8 7 -8 8 .

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8 S u lp ic iu s S ev eru s, V ita M a r t i n i , C ap . X III, fo llo w in g th e e d itio n b y J a cq u es F o n ta in e in Vie i e S a i n t M a r t i n , S ou rces C h rtien n es 133 (P aris 1 967) I, 2 4 8 - 3 4 5 . C h ap ter referen ces w ill follow th e c ita tio n in b rack ets from h ere on. 9 T h is o ccu rs in C ap . X L IX w h en A n th o n y is in v o lv ed in a d isp u te w ith so m e p a g a n p h ilo so p h ers; h e ex o r c ise s som e d em o n s to p rove th e su p erio rity o f th e C h ristia n G o d . W e are to ld th a t c u m v ita le sig n u m in sacro num ro T r in ita tis p ressisset in fro n tib u s, u n a cu m e x p u lsis d a e m o n ib u s van a p ra esen tiu m p h ilosop h oru m c o n fu ta ta sa p ie n tia e s t . ( W h en h e h a d p ressed th e liv in g sig n in th e h o ly n u m b er o f th e T rin ity o n th e ir fore h e a d s, th e v a in w isd o m o f th e p h ilo so p h ers p resen t w as silen ced a lo n g w ith th e e x p e lle d d e m o n s. ) T h is is th e o n ly in sta n c e I ca n find in w hich A n th o n y d e lib e r a te ly to u c h e s h is p a tie n ts. 10 I h a v e ch o se n to u se E v a g r iu s L atin version o f A th a n a siu s sin c e it w as a lm o st c e rta in ly th e o n e w h ich S u lp ic iu s S everu s w ou ld h ave k n ow n , an d a g a in st w h ich h e w ou ld h a v e b e e n r e a c tin g in h is d e p ic tio n o f M artin . A n o th er valu ab le s tu d y m ig h t b e u n d er ta k e n co m p a rin g A th a n a s iu s G reek w ith E v a g r iu s L atin version o f th e Vita A n t o n i i . For co m p a riso n th e read er is referred to A th a n a s iu s version in P G 2 6 .8 3 5 -9 7 6 , a n d th e tr a n sla tio n b y R .T . M eyer, The Life of S t A n t h o n y , A n cien t C h ristia n W riters 10 (W e st m in ste r , M a ry la n d 1 9 5 0 ). I follow th e e d itio n o f E vagriu s w h ich a p p ea rs in P L 7 3 .1 2 5 -9 4 . F u rth er ch a p te r referen ces w ill follow th e c ita tio n in b rack ets. H In th e b o o k b y J.M . H u ll, H e lle n istic M a gic an d the S y n o p tic T r a d itio n , (L o n d o n 1 9 7 4 ), th is in c id e n t is d isc u sse d ( 1 0 5 -1 0 ) as ev id en ce o f m a g ica l th in k in g in th e G o sp els, p a rticu la r ly in L uke. M an y o f th e m ore m a g ica l a sp e c ts o f C h r ists m ira cles se em w ell fitte d for a d a p ta tio n to th e co n cern s o f M artin , sin ce M a rtin s m ira cles are o fte n a cco m p lish e d b y to u ch ; it is th u s a b it su rp risin g th a t S u lp iciu s d o e s n o t m ak e m ore freq u en t a n d sp ec ific a llu sio n s to G o sp e l p reced en ts, or d esig n h is n a rra tiv es in su c h a w ay as ev o k e p a rticu la r G o sp e l sto ries. W h en h e d o e s do so , it is u su a lly in a stra ig h tfo rw a rd m a n n er , w ith o u t co m m en t; in Dial ogue III, for ex a m p le, it is b riefly m e n tio n e d th a t a w om an su fferin g fro m a n issu e o f b lo o d w as cu red by to u c h in g M a rtin s g a rm en t, as in th e G o sp e l sto ry (C a p . IX ). He offers n o e d ify in g e x p o sitio n o f th is in c id e n t. A p p a r e n tly th e n a tu r e o f th e r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n M artin a n d C hrist d id n o t se em p a r tic u la r ly b afflin g or tro u b le so m e to S u lp iciu s; in th e Vita A n t o n i i , the n a tu re o f A n th o n y s r e la tio n sh ip to C h rist is c o n sis te n tly co m m e n ted u p o n an d m igh t alm ost b e called a m a jo r th em e. I 2 It m ig h t b e p o ss ib le to read th is p h rase as at h is to u c h , i.e ., a t th e to u c h o f M artin; h ow ever, it se em s to m e m ore lik ely th a t S u lp iciu s is ta lk in g a b o u t th e to u c h o f th e oil. S u lp ic iu s is everyw h ere carefu l to g iv e a p o in t b y p o in t a c co u n t o f M a r tin s a ctio n s; th e s a in t s p recise g estu res are im p o r ta n t, an d it seem s rea so n a b le to assu m e th a t if M a rtin s to u c h h a d b e e n m ea n t, th ere w ou ld h ave b een n o am b igu ity.

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