Lake Bonneville: A Scientific Update

attention.

Introduction

C.G. Oviatt*; J.F. Shroder, Jr.†, * Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States, † University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States

Keywords

Lake Bonneville; G.K. Gilbert; Pleistocene; Great Basin

Lake Bonneville in Western North America

Lake Bonneville was the largest late Pleistocene pluvial lake in the Great Basin of western North America. Its drainage basin encompassed much of what is now western Utah and parts of Wyoming, Idaho, and Nevada (Fig. 1). The shorelines and deposits of Lake Bonneville were probably recognized by the earliest inhabitants of the eastern Great Basin. Many people living there now or who have visited the basin see the shorelines on the mountain sides and speculate about the history of the ancient lake. Focused scientific research on Lake Bonneville began with G.K. Gilbert in the 1870s and 1880s, and his masterpiece on the lake was published in 1890.

Fig. 1 Map of Lake Bonneville produced by Ken Adams. The solid black line represents the drainage divide of the Bonneville basin. Three shades of blue show lakes in the Bonneville basin; the lightest shade is for modern lakes, Great Salt Lake ( GSL ), Utah Lake ( UL ), and Sevier Lake ( SL ); Lake Bonneville at the Provo shoreline is shown in the next darker blue , and the darkest blue shade shows the lake extent at the Bonneville shoreline. Two primary subbasins merged at lake levels higher than the Stansbury shoreline—the main body, which includes the Great Salt Lake basin and some smaller closed basins, and the Sevier body. The primary connection between the main body and the Sevier body was a strait at the modern topographic divide between the two bodies, the Old River Bed threshold (ORBT). Two additional straits southwest of the ORBT connected the two bodies at lake levels higher than the Provo shoreline. Major rivers tributary to Lake Bonneville were the Beaver River ( RB ), Sevier ( SR ), Provo ( PR ), Weber ( WR ), Ogden ( OR ), and Bear ( BR ). The highest and most extensive mountain ranges along the east side of the basin are the Uinta Mountains (U) and the Wasatch Mountains (W). Two tributaries on the west side of the basin are labeled: DC (Deep Creek) and GC (Grouse Creek). SLC , Salt Lake City, D , Delta, We , Wendover, L , Logan, and RRP , Red Rock Pass.

Lake Bonneville grew and shrank during the last major episode of global glaciation, referred to as Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 2. The lake formed in the hydrographically closed basin occupied today by the Great Salt Lake and other shallow lakes in response to climate change that caused the inputs of water, as direct precipitation to the lake and as runoff from rain and snow in the mountains, to be greater than outputs by evaporation from the lake surface. Although it is tempting to think that Lake Bonneville grew in response to the input of glacial meltwater, the lake did not receive runoff from the large Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets that grew to cover much of northern North America during MIS 2, and the total volume of ice in mountain glaciers in valleys tributary to Lake Bonneville was less than 3.5% of the volume of the lake at its highest level (Chapter 17). Although fluxes have not been determined, groundwater inflow to the lake from the surrounding mountains must have been an important component of the water budget, and groundwater outflow from the basin would have been initiated as the lake reached elevations high enough that water could flow through permeable materials, such as tectonically shattered bedrock, alluvium, colluvium, and mass-movement deposits, on the basin rim. For most of its history Lake Bonneville was a closed-basin lake, so in that sense it was typical of the many other Pleistocene-age, closed-basin lakes in the Great Basin (Mifflin and Wheat, 1979; Smith and Street-Perrott, 1983; Benson and Thompson, 1987; Adams and Redwine, 2016), but it was atypical in terms of its size. Lake Bonneville was much larger in surface area and deeper than the next-largest Pleistocene lake in the Great Basin, Lake Lahontan, in western Nevada (Morrison, 1991).

At its highest level, marked by the Bonneville shoreline, Lake Bonneville had inundated a number of smaller closed basins (Eardley et al., 1957). The two largest of the subbasins of Lake Bonneville are the main body in the north, which consists primarily of the Great Salt Lake subbasin and a number of smaller closed basins, and the Sevier body in the south (Fig. 1). The main body was fed by the major rivers Provo, Weber, and Bear, in addition to many smaller streams and rivers. The Sevier body was fed by the Sevier and Beaver Rivers. All of these major rivers headed in high, glaciated mountains along the eastern side of the basin. Apart from a few exceptional streams, such as Grouse Creek and Deep Creek, which today are ephemeral but which in Bonneville times produced recognizable deltas, little runoff was supplied to the lake from the west side of the basin.

During the time since G.K. Gilbert's tremendous work was published in 1890, many people have pursued research topics concerning Lake Bonneville and the Bonneville basin. Notable research has been undertaken and published by A.J. Eardley, D.R. Currey, and W.E. Scott. Not everything produced by these three people has withstood scientific tests, but they had a lasting impact on the evolving understanding of the lake, and many, many others have made important contributions that have built on and refined Gilbert's accomplishments.

Lake Bonneville Chronology

In the following paragraphs we present an overview of Lake Bonneville chronology primarily based on the results of radiocarbon analyses from the Bonneville basin (Oviatt, 2015). Among previous summaries of the radiocarbon chronology are those by Broecker and Kaufman (1965), Scott et al. (1983), and Oviatt et al. (1992). The chronology presented by Oviatt (2015) was based on an analysis of 368 radiocarbon ages from outcrops in the Bonneville basin obtained by many researchers since the 1950s. Many other ages from sediment cores were not included in the compilation. Even with hundreds of available ages some parts of the Bonneville chronology are not well dated, but despite uncertainties, certain features of the Bonneville radiocarbon chronology are well understood. New work on dating techniques in addition to radiocarbon (such as optically stimulated luminescence and surface exposure dating using cosmogenic radionuclides; Chapter 9) has potential to improve the accuracy and precision of the chronology.

Lake Bonneville began rising above elevations similar to modern Great Salt Lake about 30 cal ka BP (Fig. 2). This age estimate is dependent on a small number of radiocarbon ages with large uncertainties; it is a nice round number that is consistent with the available evidence, but future research will likely improve upon it (Chapter 11). Climate change probably initiated Lake Bonneville, but diversion of the upper Bear River into the Bonneville basin prior to the beginning of the Bonneville lake cycle played a role (Chapter 2). Limited evidence from sediment cores from Great Salt Lake suggests that at least as far back as 40 cal ka BP the lake supported brine shrimp at times, and saline-tolerant ostracods (Limnocythere staplini) at other times (Chapter 11). Both brine shrimp and saline-tolerant ostracods require the lake to be shallow enough for the water to have the appropriate chemistry (salinity and ionic composition) to support them. As far as is known, these conditions prevailed during all of MIS 3 (29–60 cal ka BP; Oviatt et al., 2014).

Fig. 2 Chronology of Lake Bonneville based on analysis of hundreds of radiocarbon ages. T , transgressive phase; O , overflowing phase; R , regressive phase. Lake Gunnison was in the Sevier basin. Only some post-Stansbury transgressive-phase oscillations, which must have been numerous in the closed basin, are shown (including three that have been documented based on stratigraphic evidence, U1, U2, and U3; Oviatt, 1997). It is likely that the lake oscillated in pre-Stansbury time, but stratigraphic evidence of them has not been found. Elevations are adjusted for differential isostatic rebound using the Currey equation ( Oviatt, 2015). Basaltic volcanic ashes are useful stratigraphic markers in Lake Bonneville deposits: HV, Hansel Valley basaltic ash; PE, Pony Express basaltic ash; PB, Pahvant Butte basaltic ash; TH, Tabernacle Hill basaltic ash. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated using CALIB 7.0 and the IntCal13 curve (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Reimer et al., 2013). GSL, Great Salt Lake. Modified from Oviatt, C.G., 2015. Chronology of Lake Bonneville, 30,000 to 10,000 yr B.P. Quat. Sci. Rev. 110, 166–171.

The lake fluctuated and oscillated constantly in the closed basin during its transgressive phase (Gilbert, 1890; Jewell, 2016; Chapter 3). By about 25 cal ka BP it had risen about a third of the way to its highest elevation, when it experienced two or more oscillations referred to collectively as the Stansbury oscillation (Oviatt et al., 1990). The Stansbury shoreline, which actually consists of multiple shorelines within a narrow elevational range (less than 50 m), formed at this time. After the Stansbury oscillation the long-term trend of lake-level change was upward, punctuated by numerous fluctuations and oscillations, at an average rate of about 50 m/ka decreasing to about 13 m/ka at about 22 cal ka BP (~ 1500 m in elevation). The largest and most impressive depositional landforms in the basin, referred to by Gilbert (1890) as the intermediate shorelines because of their topographic position between the Bonneville and Provo shorelines, formed during the post-Stansbury transgressive phase. Some transgressive-phase oscillations have been dated (Oviatt, 1997; Nelson and Jewell, 2015), and evidence of others will probably be discovered and dated. Major transgressive-phase oscillations are important because they were caused by climate changes that might be hemispheric or global in scope.

As Currey (1990) and Wambeam (2001) noted, because of the approximately linear relationship between lake-surface elevation and surface area, lake elevation (lake level) is a proxy for both surface area and water volume. Lake elevation increased by over 300 m during the transgressive phase. By about 18 cal ka BP Lake Bonneville had risen high enough to reach the low point on its basin rim (Fig. 2). The Bonneville shoreline marks the highest elevation attained by the lake (Chapter 5) when it reached the threshold at Zenda just north of Red Rock Pass, Idaho, and overflowed into the Snake River drainage basin. Gilbert assembled the pieces of the geomorphic puzzle in the Red Rock Pass area and reasoned that lake overflow led to a catastrophic drawdown of the lake as the alluvium, landslide deposits, and nonresistant Neogene sediment at the outlet were washed away by what he called the Bonneville flood (Gilbert, 1890; Chapters 4 and 6). Lake level fell rapidly by 125 m or more (Currey, 1982; Miller et al., 2013), in probably less than a year (Jarrett and Malde, 1987; O’Connor, 1993; Chapter 6), from the Bonneville shoreline (determined by initial overflow at the Zenda threshold) to the Provo shoreline (controlled by overflow at the Red Rock Pass threshold). The large landslide on the west side of Red Rock Pass, which had been reactivated by the Bonneville flood (Chapter 4), continued to move, while the Provo shoreline was forming and caused the Red Rock Pass threshold to rise by at least 15 m during the ensuing 3 ka (Godsey et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2013; Chapter 7). The Provo shoreline marks the overflowing (open-basin) phase of lake history (Fig. 2).

Climate change led to a shift in water budget, from inputs exceeding outputs during most of the transgressive phase and probably all of the overflowing phase, to evaporative outputs exceeding inputs during the regressive phase. As a result, the lake dropped from the Provo shoreline at about 15 cal ka BP to elevations similar to those of modern Great Salt Lake, about 200 m lower, by about 13 cal ka BP. This decline was rapid, with an average rate of about 100 m per thousand years. The lake occupied a closed basin during this 2-ka regressive phase and must have experienced multiple oscillations and fluctuations on its way down, but a stratigraphic record of those oscillations has not yet been found. Regressive-phase shoreline deposits are thin or do not exist in many places, compared to the thick and widespread transgressive-phase deposits.

The lake remained at low levels, probably similar to those of modern Great Salt Lake, for about 1.4 ka, until it rose by about 15 m during the Gilbert episode, which culminated at about 11.6 cal ka BP (Oviatt, 2014). The concept of a Gilbert shoreline has been around at least since Currey (1982) showed it on a map, yet evidence does not exist that the landforms at most of the sites mapped by Currey as the Gilbert shoreline are related to the Gilbert episode. Lacustrine landforms (mostly gravel barriers) at most of Currey's (1982) Gilbert-shoreline sites are too high in elevation to be related to the Gilbert episode, and some were formed during the transgressive phase of Lake Bonneville. The culmination of the Gilbert episode at 11.6 cal ka BP was at the tail end of the Northern-Hemisphere climate event known as the Younger Dryas (12.9–11.6 cal ka BP; Bromley et al., 2014). The physical link between the Younger Dryas and the Gilbert episode has not been firmly established.

Between about 13 and 11.6 cal ka BP, including the time of the Gilbert episode, the lake supported ostracods tolerant of high-alkalinity waters but not brine shrimp (Oviatt, 2014; Chapter 11). The Great Salt Lake has contained hypersaline water and has supported brine shrimp (no ostracods) since the end of the Gilbert episode. Holocene lake rises were less than 6 m above average historic levels, compared to 15 m for the Gilbert episode. See Chapter 1 for an overview of links between modern Great Salt Lake and Lake Bonneville.

This Volume

Our intention for this volume is to summarize the state of knowledge in the early 21st century concerning many topics related to Lake Bonneville and the Bonneville basin. In addition to the chronology and history of Lake Bonneville, many other scientific topics have been pursued in the basin and are reviewed in this volume. The history of scientific research in the Bonneville basin is an important subject in itself (Sack, 1989), partly because of Gilbert's extensive and intensive initial contributions, and partly because of the length of time—over a century—that the science has been evolving. Gilbert made major contributions to some of the topics discussed here, including isostatic deformation caused by the Lake Bonneville water load (Chapter 8), and mountain glaciation in the Bonneville basin (Chapter 17). Some important topics that Gilbert discussed in his monograph, such as Quaternary faulting and volcanism, are not reviewed in this volume.

Sedimentary history, geochemistry, paleoclimate, geophysics, and remote sensing in studies of Lake Bonneville are treated in this volume—see Chapters 10 and 11 on sediment cores, Chapter 16 on water geochemistry during the transgressive phase, Chapter 19 on geophysics and structural architecture of part of the Bonneville basin, Chapter 20 on paleoclimate of the eastern Great Basin derived from speleothem records, and Chapter 22 on the use of remote sensing and digital terrain tools. Gilbert addressed these topics only partially or not at all, mostly because of limitations imposed by the knowledge base and available technology in the late 19th century.

Tremendous knowledge has been gained since Gilbert's day about many aspects of the natural history of the Bonneville basin—see mammals in Chapter 13, fossil fishes in Chapter 12, prehistoric people in Chapter 18, vegetation in Chapter 15, pollen in Chapter 11, and birds in Chapter 14. Final chapters in the volume discuss how shorelines of Lake Bonneville are an excellent analog for water bodies on other planets (Chapter 21), and how many landforms and deposits of Lake Bonneville should be regarded as geosites (geoantiquities) in need of greater environmental protection (Chapter 23). Exploitation of resources embodied in the landforms left by the lake has a profound affect on future generations of people, both scientists and non-scientists—once deposits of Lake Bonneville have been dug up and hauled away, the bases for scientific investigations and aesthetic appreciation of the ancient lake are gone forever.

Gilbert's Contributions and Legacy

Gilbert was a superb scientist and his profound study of Lake Bonneville was among his many contributions to a multitude of geological topics (Pyne, 1980; Yochelson, 1980). Gilbert traveled throughout the basin and applied his observational skills to many fascinating geographic and geologic problems. Not only was Gilbert an excellent observer, but he interpreted his observations in ways that were accurate, innovative, and groundbreaking. His interpretations did not violate, but exceeded and built on the science of his day. This volume is not the first publication that recognizes Gilbert's important contributions to Lake Bonneville research (Machette, 1988), and probably will not be the last.

It is safe to say that few, if any, people who have worked on the lake since Gilbert have exceeded his exceptional abilities of observation and interpretation. He saw and understood more than any researcher of the 20th or 21st century. We now know that not all of Gilbert's scientific conclusions about the lake were correct, but most were. Scientific knowledge has advanced since 1890, but progress has not been monotonic—most scientific work has led to advancements, other work has led to dead ends or to interpretations that have slowed down or reversed forward progress. In most cases where new investigations are undertaken, it pays to take a look back at what Gilbert had to say about the topic. Gilbert himself was responsible for both correct and incorrect conclusions about lake history.

An example of an incorrect conclusion about lake history by Gilbert is his proposal that Lake Bonneville history consisted of two subcycles. He named the earlier of the two subcycles the Yellow Clay Epoch after the lithologic unit he had called the Yellow Clay, and the later subcycle the White Marl Epoch after the lithologic unit of that name (Fig. 3). Many researchers since Gilbert accepted the idea of a two-part Bonneville cycle, and different lake-level chronologies were built on that basic idea, culminating in a scenario by Morrison (1966), in which the two Bonneville subcycles were further divided into a total of eight high-amplitude transgressions and regressions (this elaborate lake-level reconstruction has not withstood scientific tests). Careful work by Scott et al. (1983) showed that the Bonneville lake cycle consisted of a single MIS 2 cycle, and laid the groundwork for an accurate radiocarbon chronology. In the 1980s it became apparent that the Yellow Clay and White Marl were deposited during a single lake cycle—they were different depositional facies of Lake Bonneville (Oviatt, 1987) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Changing views on the chronology of Lake Bonneville. (A) Gilbert's summary diagram of the history of the Bonneville basin ( 1890, fig. 34, p. 262): … the upper and lower horizontal lines represent the horizons of the Bonneville shore and the surface of Great Salt Lake. Horizontal distances represent time, counted from left to right. The curve represents the height of the oscillating water surface, and the shaded area indicates ignorance. He interpreted the stratigraphic unit he called the yellow clay as having been deposited during a separate high-lake cycle (the Yellow Clay Epoch). (B) A summary of the interpretations of Oviatt (1987, 2015) for the Bonneville lake cycle, which Gilbert called the White Marl Epoch. Gilbert's yellow clay (T yellow clay or transgressive-phase yellow clay) was deposited early in the Bonneville lake cycle. At lower altitudes along the Old River Bed the white marl (the deep-water sediments of Lake Bonneville) is overlain by a regressive-phase yellow clay (R yellow clay), which Gilbert did not mention in his monograph. The yellow clay of Gilbert occurs only at the Old River Bed where he worked. Note that the lake-level curve in B (dashed red line) shows the lake transgressing to the Bonneville shoreline and dropping immediately in response to the Bonneville flood, similar to Gilbert's interpretation (as in A). In contrast, an example of how the chronology was interpreted for many years is shown in C, with the lake maintaining a constant elevation controlled by overflow into the Snake River drainage basin for hundreds of years as the Bonneville shoreline formed. Panel (C): Modified from Oviatt, C.G., 1997. Lake Bonneville fluctuations and global climate change. Geology 25, 155–158.

Gilbert belabored the question of the depositional environment of the Yellow Clay and arrived at a hypothesis that was consistent with the observations available to him at the time (Gilbert, 1890, pp. 200–209). As with his incorrect hypothesis about the origin of Meteor Crater in Arizona (he concluded it was a volcanic explosion crater), Gilbert's strength was not that he always got the right answer, although he usually did, but that he stringently followed the rules—to be accepted a hypothesis had to be consistent with the data at hand, regardless of how intuitively attractive a different conclusion might be.

An example of how one of Gilbert's original hypotheses was correct, yet later researchers diverged from his conclusions, is his interpretation of the geomorphic history of the Bonneville shoreline. Gilbert wrote (1890, p. 171):

Thirteen years ago I had the temerity to predict, first, that the position of the Bonneville shore-line would eventually be shown to have been determined by an overflow of the lake, and second, that the Provo shore-line would be found to have been similarly determined. The first of these predictions has been verified in its letter, but not in its spirit; the second has proved to have full warrant. My anticipation was based on the following consideration: A lake without overflow has its extent determined by the ratio of precipitation to evaporation within its basin; and since this ratio is inconstant, fluctuating from year to year and from decade to decade, it is highly improbable that the water level will remain constant long enough to permit its waves to carve a deep record. I failed to take account of the fact that the highest shore-mark of the series is conspicuous by reason of the contrast there exhibited between land sculpture and littoral sculpture. We now know that the height of the Bonneville shore-line was determined in a certain sense by overflow, since a discharge limited the rise of the water; but the carving of the shore was essentially completed before the discharge; and as soon as that began, the water level fell. At the Provo horizon, on the contrary, a constant or nearly constant water-level was maintained by discharge for a very long time.

This is a clear statement of Gilbert's conclusions about the role of overflow in the formation of the Bonneville and Provo shorelines based on his extensive observations in the basin. Later researchers, however, formulated their own interpretations.

The idea that the lake overflowed for a prolonged period during the development of the Bonneville shoreline and prior to the Bonneville flood appeared sometime after 1890. The earliest publication of it we are aware of was by Pack (1939), although the idea might have been presented earlier than this. Prolonged overflow at the Bonneville shoreline became part of the lore of Lake Bonneville—everyone knew the lake had overflowed for hundreds of years, or longer, while a broad erosional platform was produced at the Bonneville shoreline (eg, Scott et al., 1983; Oviatt et al., 1992) (Fig. 3). In fact, however, no evidence exists for prolonged overflow at the Bonneville shoreline—there is no erosional platform at the Bonneville shoreline (Chapter 5). Gilbert's interpretation of the Provo shoreline, as the result of a long period of overflow at a nearly constant level on the regressive limb of the lake-cycle curve, has proved to be correct (Chapter 7).

Gilbert's legacy continues as his many hypotheses about Lake Bonneville are tested, most to be confirmed and accepted, others to be replaced with ideas that are consistent with the evolving science. We hope this book helps demonstrate that ideas about Lake Bonneville continue to improve as new information and techniques become available, and that the geology, geomorphology, hydrology, plants, animals, and people, of its basin should be deeply treasured. Lake Bonneville is unique because of its magnitude and the number of high-quality scientific investigations that have been devoted to its understanding for so long. This volume will help document where we are now and point toward important unanswered questions.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Ken Adams of the Desert Research Institute for producing the map in Fig. 1, to K. Adams and D. Miller for reading a draft of this introduction and making helpful comments, and to the authors and reviewers of chapters in the volume for their positive responses to announcements, inquiries about the book, and reviews, and for submitting superb manuscripts. Future updates on Lake Bonneville will keep us informed, but we will probably always look back to G.K. Gilbert for insights from a true master.

References

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Chapter 1

The Present as a Key to the Past

Paleoshoreline Correlation Insights from Great Salt Lake

G. Atwood; T.J. Wambeam; N.J. Anderson    Earth Science Education, Salt Lake City, UT, United States

Abstract

Reconstructions of the history of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville and its successor Great Salt Lake are largely based on correlations of paleoshorelines. Regional identification of evidence of a shoreline of a given age based on field evidence is complicated by at least three types of variability: elevation, materials, and age. Evidence of the 1986/87 high stillwater level of Great Salt Lake ranges from stillwater lake level to 3 m above stillwater lake level in response to patterns of wave energy. The variability can be inherited from initial conditions such as shorezone exposure to contrasting wave energies. Variability of paleoshorelines also can be due to postdepositional landform evolution such as tectonic deformation and sedimentary processes. Quantification of Great Salt Lake shoreline superelevation, the difference in elevation between the stillwater elevation of a lake and its shoreline evidence, can be used to reduce errors in correlating paleoshorelines of Lake Bonneville. Observations of constrictions and thresholds between bays of modern Great Salt Lake also provide insights about processes that result in variability along paleoshorelines of Lake Bonneville.

Keywords

Great Salt Lake; Lake Bonneville; Paleoshoreline; Shoreline correlation; Shoreline superelevation; Cutler Narrows; Coastal processes closed-basin lakes

1.1 Introduction

Determinations of paleolake elevations from ancient shoreline deposits, generally referred to as paleoshorelines, are used to calculate paleolake surface area and volume. In this sense, paleoshoreline refers to a landform created by shorezone processes, not the hypothetical interface of water and land. Determinations of paleoshorelines generally assume that the elevation of that landform represents the lake surface during periods of quiescence. Examination of modern Great Salt Lake shoreline deposits compared to recorded stillwater lake elevations brings that assumption into question because the evidence of the historic high level of Great Salt Lake varies as much as 3 m from the lake's stillwater high level.

Determination of historic elevations from preserved shoreline evidence is not straightforward. This chapter challenges the direct use of elevations on paleoshorelines to identify stillwater elevations of levels of Lake Bonneville. Understanding the processes that cause variability of shoreline elevation and materials can lead to more accurate determinations not only of paleolake stillwater level but also estimates of paleolake surface area and volume.

An accurate reconstructive climate history of paleolakes must be based on an accurate determination of paleolake stillwater surfaces (ie, the elevation of a lake's surface undisturbed by waves and referenced to a datum). Although general paleolake surface area and volume can be determined from a simple correlation among preserved shoreline deposits, this method is not sufficiently accurate to model lacustrine processes or reconstruct regional paleoclimate history. Variability of interpreted elevations of ancient shorelines can be caused by erroneous assumptions, misinterpretation of evidence of a paleoshoreline (that is, shoreline evidence), and changes due to tectonic deformation and sedimentary processes. Without an understanding of the relation between coastal processes and stillwater conditions, and changes due to tectonic deformation, the accuracy of paleolake water levels for research applications is questionable.

Shoreline evidence of modern and ancient lakes, even when clearly delineated, can be difficult to interpret (Fig. 1.1). A comparison of the 1986 stillwater lake level of Great Salt Lake and the elevation of storm debris preserved along the crests and margins of barrier beaches demonstrates that stillwater levels are below the elevation of deposits typically used to determine paleoshoreline elevations. Variability of coastal processes due to local conditions further complicates the accurate determination of stillwater lake levels. Reoccupation of stillwater levels adds complexity for assigning an age to a shoreline expression such as to a barrier beach. Accurate paleoshoreline correlation faces many of these same challenges. To reconcile equivocal but discontinuous paleoshoreline evidence, shorezone materials can be dated to clarify age relations.

Fig. 1.1 Photo of east shore of Antelope Island, Great Salt Lake, Utah. This photograph, taken in early Jun. 1986, documents the stillwater level of the official high level of Jun. 3, 1986. The shoreline of Great Salt Lake, defined as the interface of water and land, is clearly delineated. Complexities of shoreline correlation include challenges of age determination of shorezones occupied intermittently by Great Salt Lake. Over the past 190 years, the lake has occupied the stillwater level shown in this image for fewer than 30 days based on accounts by Gilbert (1890) for the 19th century and USGS monitoring of the 20th and 21st centuries. The duration and frequency of prior occupations are unknown. However, based on evidence of the 20th century, waves from an unknown but limited number of storm events modified the complex of barrier beaches and lagoons. Cross-cutting relationships indicate relative age and direction of lake currents. The elevation of shorezone evidence of high-lake level is higher than the lake's stillwater level. Photograph by Atwood. Source: Atwood, G., 2006. Shoreline Superelevation: Evidence of Coastal Processes of Great Salt Lake, Utah. Utah Geological Survey, Misc Publication 06-9, 231 p., courtesy of UGS.

Correlating discontinuous Lake Bonneville paleoshorelines is generally accomplished by detailed fieldwork incorporating topographic control, image analysis, and observations to assure that the evidence represents a specific lake level at a given time. However, field judgment is required including an awareness of the processes that account for shoreline modification and deformation.

1.2 Great Salt Lake and Lake Bonneville as a System

The modern Great Salt Lake and its older, larger, deeper Ice-Age predecessor Lake Bonneville are located on the eastern margin of the Basin and Range physiographic province. Great Salt Lake has several bays that occupy the lowest areas of the Bonneville basin, is very shallow in that it averages only 9 m in its deepest places (Baskin and Allen, 2005; Baskin and Turner, 2006), and is hypersaline inasmuch as it reaches saturation (28% salinity) in Gunnison Bay (Loving et al., 2000). The map of Fig. 1.2 shows the extent of major levels of Lake Bonneville and Great Salt Lake based on mapping by Currey (1982) and Currey et al. (1984) and isostatic modeling (Wambeam, 2001). The map of Fig. 1.3 shows prominent locations associated with Lake Bonneville including locations referenced.

Fig. 1.2 Extent of major levels of Lake Bonneville and Great Salt Lake. The three major levels of Lake Bonneville (Marine Isotope Stage 2) after Wambeam (2001) are the Bonneville, Provo, and Stansbury levels in order of descending elevation. The two major levels of Great Salt Lake (Marine Isotope Stage 1) are the Gilbert level and the historic average level of Great Salt Lake. Depiction of the Gilbert level is based on Currey (1982). Historic average stillwater elevation of Great Salt Lake is based on Arnow and Stephens (1990). GIS Data from Wambeam (2001).

Fig. 1.3 Map of prominent features and locations referenced in the chapter. Lake-level data from Wambeam (2001). Background data from USGS Digital Elevation Models.

As expressions of a system, Lake Bonneville and Great Salt Lake share physical similarities such as geographic location, tectonic setting, and lake-level fluctuations due to climate and not to related tides. Lacustrine sediments and shorezone features of both lakes record lake-level changes. Both lakes have complex shapes with islands, thresholds, and bays. Contrasts between the lakes include physical characteristics such as size, extent, salinity, biota, and watersheds. Compared to Lake Bonneville, the bounding conditions of Great Salt Lake are well defined including ranges of salinity, inflow of sediments and dissolved constituents, lake response to weather and climate, effects of contrasting storm systems, lake circulation patterns, inflow of groundwater, tectonic setting, and detailed hypsometry. The 170-year historic hydrograph of Great Salt Lake (Fig. 1.4) and the monitoring data collected by the State of Utah and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) records seasonal, annual, and decadal fluctuations in response to climate. Trends of lake level in Fig. 1.4 show the rapid rise and fall of two-decadal wet cycles.

Fig. 1.4 Lake stillwater elevation trends of historic Great Salt Lake, 1845–2014. The Great Salt Lake hydrograph is based on USGS 170-year records. The high level of Great Salt Lake of the 1860s–70s was not monitored and was estimated as 1284 m (4212 ft) a.s.l. ( Gilbert, 1890). The high level of the 1980s wet cycle included two peaks, in 1986 and in 1987 at approximately 1284 m (4212 ft) a.s.l. Trends of the 1960s and 2012–14 indicate two dry cycles lowering the lake to approximately 1277 m (4191 ft) a.s.l. Regional precipitation and lake evaporation are major factors affecting the water balance of Great Salt Lake, although interbasin diversions and consumptive water use complicate modeling. Seasonal and decadal trends of stillwater elevation in response to climate are comparatively well bounded for Great Salt Lake compared to the millennial trends of Lake Bonneville. Source: Modified from Baskin, R.L., 2014. Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microbial Bioherms in Great Salt Lake, Utah. Salt Lake City, University of Utah, Ph.D. dissertation, data source USGS.

This chapter suggests that research on Great Salt Lake shorelines can be used to reduce error in correlating the paleoshorelines of Lake Bonneville. Two lines of evidence are discussed:

(1) Conclusions from research along the 1986/87 shoreline of Great Salt Lake (Atwood, 2006) that documents variability of elevation and materials due to effects of uneven distribution of wave energy along shores of Great Salt Lake and

(2) Observations of effects of bays, constrictions, and thresholds of historic Great Salt Lake on shorezone materials, lake levels, and lake chemistry.

1.3 Challenges of Correlating Shorelines

Gilbert (1890) recognized the variability of elevation along Lake Bonneville shorelines. He surveyed paleoshorelines at major levels of Lake Bonneville and deduced that the Bonneville and Provo levels had threshold control whereas the Stansbury level did not. In the process, he recognized the challenges of correlating paleoshoreline evidence and wrote:

The discovery that the old water line is no longer of uniform height, and the fact that its variations of altitude afford a means of measuring the recent differential movements of the earth's crust within the basin, give occasion for great regret that the exact identification of the highest water stage is so difficult a matter.

Gilbert (1890, p. 125)

Since Gilbert's observations, researchers have refined the chronology of the lakes and experienced the challenges of correlating shorelines. In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers used field evidence of paleoshorelines supplemented with aerial photographs and evidence of offshore and deltaic deposits to define lake cycles, including the no-longer-recognized Alpine phase of the Bonneville cycle (Hunt et al., 1953; Feth et al., 1966). Their work highlights the challenges of correlating shoreline evidence with discontinuous packets of sediments.

From 1980 to 2000, Currey and students identified the extent and relative age of lake fluctuations from the late Pleistocene to the present using field identification of geomorphic expressions of erosional and depositional shorelines, supplemented with aerial photographs and 1:24,000-scale topographic maps, plus limited radiocarbon dating of shoreline evidence. Currey's correlations of paleoshorelines adjusted the recognized history of the Stansbury level to a transgressive phase of Lake Bonneville rather than a major regressive phase after the formation of the Provo shoreline (Currey et al., 1984). Currey and students continued to study the Stansbury level as fresh exposures of stratigraphic relationships provided opportunities to observe superposition among deposits. Currey's work to correlate paleoshorelines highlights challenges of correlating shoreline evidence that is largely buried by later lacustrine deposits. Currey correlated what appeared to be post-Bonneville, prehistoric shoreline evidence within the zone of 1291–1298 m a.s.l. and interpreted it as evidence of the Gilbert level (Currey, 1982; Currey et al., 1984). Oviatt (2014) questioned those correlations and their implications. Oviatt's work highlights the evolution of knowledge with increased stratigraphic evidence and age determinations for correlating low-level shorelines in zones reoccupied and reworked by subsequent lake fluctuations.

Work continues on specific sequences of shorelines. Godsey's (2012) research correlates multiple expressions of the Provo shorelines of Tooele County to explain effects of threshold control and tectonic adjustments. Nelson's (2012) work along the west shore of Great Salt Lake on multiple paleoshorelines intermediate between the Provo and Bonneville levels documented the magnitude of fluctuations during Lake Bonneville's transgression to the Bonneville level.

Shoreline correlation challenges researchers of Great Salt Lake as well as of Lake Bonneville. In the mid-1980s, as Great Salt Lake rose to its historic high levels (Fig. 1.4), the Utah Geological and Mineral Survey sponsored research to better understand the flooding hazards of the lake. Research included work by Murchison and Currey along the west shore of Great Salt Lake and on islands of Great Salt Lake (Murchison, 1989) to define the informally named Holocene high of 1286.6 m (4221 ft) a.s.l., work by Currey that correlated pre-Gilbert red beds (Currey et al., 1988), work by Mulvey on a series of shorelines along the east shore of Antelope Island (Murchison and Mulvey, 2000), and work by Atwood and Mabey on Antelope Island (2000) to estimate the frequency and magnitude of flooding events between historically high-lake levels and Murchison's Holocene high. That research concluded that Great Salt Lake had risen at least six times during the past 10,000 years to the level of the historic high level or higher. The 1980s work highlights the challenges of correlating historic and prehistoric shorelines of Great Salt Lake because of initial variability of shoreline evidence (Atwood and Mabey, 2000). Series of shoreline evidence were identified at 19 places around Antelope Island (Fig. 1.5). At none of these places were the same set of shorelines identified or their relative elevations consistent.

Fig. 1.5 Variability of elevation of evidence of Holocene shorelines of Great Salt Lake. The index map shows 19 locations around Antelope Island where evidence of the 1986/87 debris line of the historic high-lake level of Great Salt Lake was surveyed in 1987–88. At those places, evidence of higher elevation shorelines also were surveyed (B–D) up to the level of Murchison's (1989) Holocene high (H). The 1986/87 shoreline evidence varied almost 2 m from stillwater lake level. Evidence of older, higher lake levels was neither continuous nor at consistent relative height above the 1986/87 debris line. This data set, in spite of its uncertainties, provided information for policy makers about recurrence and frequency of high levels of Great Salt Lake. Source: Atwood, G., Mabey, D.R., 2000. Shorelines of Antelope Island as evidence of fluctuations of the level of Great Salt Lake. In: King, J.K., Willis, G.C. (eds.), Geology of Antelope Island, Davis County, Utah. Utah Geological Survey, Misc Publication 00-1, pp. 85–97, courtesy of UGS.

A century and a half of work to correlate paleoshorelines of Lake Bonneville has clarified the complexity of factors that result in differences in elevation, differences in materials, and inconsistencies of age for a given shoreline occupation. Challenges of paleoshoreline correlation stem from two types of factors: those contemporaneous with lake occupation such as coastal processes and those introduced after lake occupation such as changes in elevation due to fault displacement or changes in materials due to erosion. Initial and postoccupation processes include four classes of variations along shorelines: age, elevation, materials, and presence vs absence of evidence (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1

The Factors and Magnitude of Change that Complicate Shoreline Correlation of Lake Bonneville (LB) and Great Salt Lake (GSL) Based on Initial Conditions and Variations Occurring Postoccupation

a Four classes of variations along shorelines: A = age; E = elevation; M = material; P = presence or absence of evidence.

Although determining the ages of shoreline materials has advanced shoreline correlation, age estimates of shoreline materials can be complicated beyond precision of analytical methods. Erosional shorelines such as abrasion platforms may have no datable material. Other sections of shore may have no datable material to analyze due to removal by postoccupation erosion. Depositional shores may have in situ datable materials, datable material that may be reworked, or introduced datable material. Inaccurate determination of age of paleoshorelines introduces potential error not only to interpretations within a lake basin, such as frequency of occupation, but also to correlations among lake basins.

Variability of elevations of shoreline evidence includes inherent differences due to erosional vs depositional processes (Gilbert, 1885). Variations of elevation along a given paleoshoreline introduce potential error in determining stillwater lake level and associated calculations of area, depth, volume, and derivative estimates, for example, of water balance and climate change.

Variations of materials along a paleoshoreline include differences in composition, shape, rounding, sorting, density, and clast size. Variations of materials introduce potential error if they are interpreted as indicative of wave energy when wave processes were not the primary cause of their variability. The presence or absence of shoreline evidence can be due to initial conditions dominated by erosion vs deposition, or by postoccupation effects of sedimentary processes.

All four classes of variability have been documented for shoreline evidence along levels of Lake Bonneville. All four types of variability were studied along the high-lake-level shoreline of 1986/87 on Antelope Island.

1.4 Evidence from Great Salt Lake

The first written records of Great Salt Lake date from explorers’ accounts (Mabey, 1986). Monitoring of Great Salt Lake elevations began with Gilbert in 1875 and has continued with few interruptions to the present (Tibbetts et al., 2004). Historic Great Salt Lake has fluctuated about 7 m (20 ft) over the past 170 years. The historic average lake-level elevation of Great Salt Lake is 1280.2 m (4200 ft) a.s.l. whereas the historic low is 1277.5 m (4191.3 ft) a.s.l. and historic high is 1283.7 m (4211.6 ft) a.s.l. (Tibbetts et al., 2004). The lowest level of the lake prior to 2016 occurred in 1963. The highest levels occurred during a wet cycle of the 1860s–70s that predated lake monitoring, and again in 1986 and 1987 during the 1980s wet cycle. The gently sloping floor of the lake means that the 6 m change in historic elevation between the lowest and highest lake levels caused the surface area of the lake to more than double from 2460 to 5960 km², an increase of 3500 km² (Arnow and Stephens, 1990). Lake-level fluctuations dramatically change the lake's overall shape, surface area, and the shape of its five major bays; Gunnison, Bear River, Ogden, Gilbert, and Farmington bays.

Compared to Lake Bonneville, the boundary conditions of Great Salt Lake are better understood, including elevation, bathymetry, tectonics, chemistry, biology, weather, and shorezone dynamics. With time, as instrumentation becomes more advanced the boundary conditions are further refined. For example, during the 1986/87 high levels of Great Salt Lake, systematic monitoring of the lake included lake-level gaging at three places in the lake and monitoring of lake chemistry in the lake's major bays. However, monitoring of weather patterns during the 1986 and 1987 high-lake-level years lacked the in-lake coverage of weather monitoring put in place by 2002. Prior to satellite imagery, aerial photographs captured snapshots of the surface-area extent of Great Salt Lake. Subannual satellite imagery is now commonly available for Great Salt Lake and vicinity.

One shoreline of historic Great Salt Lake, that of the high level of 1986/87, appears unique for purposes of shoreline research. The high-lake level created shoreline evidence that could be identified with certainty, particularly along the shores of the lake's islands. Organic and terrigenous debris was virtually continuous from 1986 to 1996 and into the 21st century along long stretches (< 5 km) of undisturbed regions of the lake's shore. No shoreline above this level has anthropogenic trash deposited with its terrigenous and organic debris. All shorelines lower than this level have anthropogenic trash in their debris. Its stillwater elevation also was known with certainty as it had been gaged by the USGS (Tibbetts et al., 2004).

Atwood (2006) mapped the shoreline's physical characteristics, including variability of the elevation of shoreline evidence. The 1986/87 shoreline of Great Salt Lake afforded an opportunity to research variability of elevation and materials of shoreline evidence virtually undisturbed by postdepositional factors of erosion, deposition, isostasy, or faulting. By documenting the variability of shoreline evidence associated with a monitored stillwater lake level, the research has provided methodology for reducing error associated with correlations of older shorelines of Great Salt Lake and Lake