Ancient and Modern Ships - Part I. Wooden Sailing-Ships

ANCIENT AND MODERN SHIPS.

PART I.

Wooden Sailing-Ships.

BY

SIR GEORGE C. V. HOLMES

WITH SEVENTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS.

Contents

ANCIENT AND MODERN SHIPS. PART I.

Boating – A Very Short History of Boats.

Boat Building

PREFACE.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER II.

ANCIENT SHIPS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AND RED SEAS.

Shipbuilding in Egypt.

Shipbuilding in Ancient Greece and Rome.

Ancient Merchant-ships.

Details of the Construction of Greek and Roman Galleys.

CHAPTER III.

ANCIENT SHIPS IN THE SEAS OF NORTHERN EUROPE.

CHAPTER IV.

MEDIÆVAL SHIPS.

CHAPTER V.

MODERN WOODEN SAILING-SHIPS.

APPENDIX.

DESCRIPTION OF A GREEK BIREME OF ABOUT 800 B.C.

FOOTNOTES:

Illustrations

Fig. 2.—The oldest known ships. Between 5000 and 6000 b.c.

Fig. 3.—Egyptian boat of the time of the third dynasty.

Fig. 4.—Egyptian boat of the time of the fourth dynasty.

Fig. 5.—Nile barge carrying obelisks. About 1600 b.c.

Fig. 6.—Battleship of Ramses III. About 1200 b.c.

Fig. 7.—Portion of a Phœnician galley. About 700 b.c. From Kouyunjik (Nineveh).

Fig. 8.—Greek unireme. About 500 b.c.

Fig. 9.—Greek bireme. About 500 b.c.

Fig. 10.—Fragment of a Greek galley showing absence of deck. About 550 b.c.

Fig. 11.—Galley showing deck and superstructure. About 600 b.c. From an Etruscan imitation of a Greek vase.

Fig. 12.—Greek merchant-ship. About 500 b.c.

Fig. 13.—Roman merchant-ship.

Fig. 14.—Probable arrangement of oar-ports in ancient galleys.

Fig. 15.—Suggested arrangement of oar-ports in an octoreme.

Fig. 16.—Roman galley. About 110 a.d.

Fig. 17.—Liburnian galley. Conjectural restoration.

Fig. 18.—Stem and stern ornaments of galleys.

Fig. 20.—Bow of ancient war-galley.

Fig. 19.—Bow of ancient war-galley.

Fig. 21.—Anglo-Saxon ship. About 900 a.d.

Fig. 22.—Viking ship.

Fig. 27.—One of William the Conqueror’s ships. 1066 a.d.

Fig. 28. Sandwich seal. 1238.

Fig. 29.—Dover seal. 1284.

Fig. 30.—Poole seal. 1325.

Fig. 31.—Venetian galley. Fourteenth century.

Fig. 32.—Cross-section of a Venetian galleon.

Fig. 33.—Venetian galleon. 1564.

Fig. 34.—Italian sailing ship. 15th century.

Fig. 35.—English ship. Time of Richard II.

Fig. 36.—English ship. Time of Henry VI.

Fig. 37.—English ship. Latter half of fifteenth century.

Fig. 38.—Columbus’ ship, the Santa Maria, 1492.

Fig. 39.—Sail-plan of the Santa Maria.

Fig. 40.—Lines of the Santa Maria.

Fig. 41.—The Henry Grace à Dieu. Pepysian Library, Cambridge.

Fig. 42.—The Henry Grace à Dieu. After Allen.

Fig. 43—Genoese carrack. 1542.

Fig. 44.—Spanish galleass. 1588.

Fig. 45.—English man-of-war. About 1588.

Fig. 46.—Venetian galleass. 1571.

Fig. 47.—The Prince Royal. 1610.

Fig. 48.—The Sovereign of the Seas. 1637.

Fig. 49.—The Royal Charles. 1673.

Fig. 50.—The Soleil Royal. 1683.

Fig. 51.—The Hollandia. 1683.

Fig. 52.—British second-rate. 1665.

Fig. 53.—Midship section of a fourth-rate.

Fig. 54.—The Falmouth. East Indiaman. Launched 1752.

Fig. 55.—The Royal George. 1746.

Fig. 56.—The Commerce de Marseille. Captured 1792.

Fig. 57.—British first-rate. 1794.

Fig. 58.—British first-rate. 1794.

Fig. 59.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.

Fig. 60.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.

Fig. 61.—The Howe. 1815.

Fig. 62.—Sir Robert Seppings’ system of construction.

Fig. 63.—Sir Robert Seppings’ system of construction.

Fig. 64.—Sir Robert Seppings’ system of construction.

Fig. 65.—The Waterloo.

Fig. 66.—The Queen.

Fig. 67.—The Thames. East Indiaman. 1819.

Fig. 68.

Fig. 69.—Free-trade barque.

Fig. 70.—The Bazaar. American cotton-ship. 1832.

Fig. 71.—The Sir John Franklin. American Transatlantic sailing-packet. 1840.

Fig. 72.—The Ocean Herald. American clipper. 1855.

Fig 73.—The Great Republic. American clipper. 1853.

Fig. 74.—Archaic Greek bireme. About 800 b.c.

Boating – A Very Short History of Boats.

Boating is the leisurely activity of travelling by boat or the recreational use of a boat, whether powerboats, sailboats or man-powered vessels (such as rowing and paddle boats), focused on the travel itself, as well as sports activities, such as fishing or waterskiing. It is a popular activity, and there are millions of boaters worldwide. A ‘boat’ itself, is a watercraft of any size designed to float or plane, to work or travel on water – used by humans even before recorded history. Boats come in an enormous variety of shapes, sizes and construction, due to intended purpose, available materials and local traditions. For example, canoes have an incredibly long history with various versions used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport. Fishing boats in turn, vary widely in style mostly to match local conditions. Pleasure boats represent a less practical approach and can include anything from ski boats, pontoon boats to sailboats… the list goes on! Most small boats are designed for inland lakes or protected coastal areas, whereas others, such as the ‘whaleboat’ are operated from another ship, in an offshore environment.

In naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). Yet for reasons of naval tradition, submarines are also usually referred to as ‘boats’ rather than ‘ships’, regardless of their size. ‘Dugouts’ are the oldest boats archaeologists have found, dating back about eight thousand years. It is known however that boats served as transport since early times; circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, findings in Crete dated 130,000 years ago, and findings in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago, suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times. The earliest boats are thought to have been logboats (a boat made from a hollowed tree trunk), and the oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe, (a logboat) from a Pinus sylvestris, constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats, as well as other types have also been recovered, for instance a 7,000 year-old seagoing reed boat, found in Kuwait.

Boats played an incredibly important part in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilisation and Mesopotamia, and much evidence of boat modelling has been discovered at various Indus Valley sides. The ‘Uru’ wooden big boat was made in Beypore, a village in South Calicut, Kerala, in south-western India – but was also used by the Arabs and Greeks since ancient times as trading vessels. This mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron or blueprints and which has a transportation capacity of 400 tonnes. A boats construction is usually its defining feature; and the measure of its success or failure at sea. There are several key components which make up the main structure of most boats though. These are, the ‘hull’; the main component that provides buoyancy. The ‘gunnel’; the sides of the boat, offering protection from the water and making it harder to sink. The ‘deck’; the roughly horizontal, but chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat (more commonly found in ships), and above the deck are the ‘superstructures.’ Underneath is the ‘cabin’, which similarly to the ‘superstructure’ will have many constituent parts.

Until the mid-nineteenth century most boats were constructed using natural materials, primarily wood although reed, bark and animal skins were also used. However, this changed with the industrial revolution, when many boats were made with iron or steel frames (now readily available and reasonably inexpensive to construct) – but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French as Ferciment. This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat’s hull and covered (trowelled) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure, it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world, and have faded in and out of popularity to the present.

As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built of all steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, even the fishing fleets. In the mid-20th century aluminium gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminium alloys available that will not corrode in salt water, and an aluminium boat built to similar load carrying standards could be built lighter than steel. Such construction methods have changed dramatically in recent years though – as around the mid-1960s, boats made of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fibreglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. A great number of small and large scale pleasure boats are now made using this material.

Fibreglass boats are strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan.

People have even made their own boats or watercraft out of materials such as foam or plastic, but most home-builds today are built of plywood and either painted or covered in a layer of fibreglass and resin. This type of boating for pleasure might involve a singlehanded vessel, or the boat may be crewed by families and friends – proceeding on its own, or joining a flotilla with other like-minded voyagers. They also may be operated by their owners, who often also gain pleasure from maintaining and modifying their craft to suit their needs and taste. Boating for trade, food, travel and recreation is an immensely widespread activity over the globe, and it is showing no signs of abating. We hope the reader enjoys this book.

Boat Building

Boat building is one of the oldest branches of engineering; concerned with constructing the hulls of boats and, for sailboats, the masts, spars and rigging. It is a specialised occupation that traces its roots into the annals of history, as well as a well-respected trade – and popular hobby. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on Borneo at least 120,000 years ago, probably by sea from the Asian mainland during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. The ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. A ‘boat’ itself, is a watercraft of any size designed to float or plane, to work or travel on water. They come in an enormous variety of shapes, sizes and construction, due to intended purpose, available materials and local traditions.

Most small boats are designed for inland lakes or protected coastal areas, whereas others, such as the ‘whaleboat’ are operated from another ship, in an offshore environment. In naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). Yet for reasons of naval tradition, submarines are also usually referred to as ‘boats’ rather than as ‘ships’, regardless of their size. ‘Boat building; was first really advanced by the Vikings, who built ‘longships’; an advancement from traditional clinker-built hulls (a method of boat building where the edges of hull planks overlap). Sometime around the twelfth century, northern European ships began to be built with a straight sternpost enabling the mounting of a rudder – much more durable than a steering oar held over the side. One of the best insights into ship building in the North Sea / Baltic areas of the early medieval period has been found at Sutton Hoo, England, where an entire ship was buried with a chieftain. The ship was 26 metres (85 ft) long and, 4.3 metres (14 ft) wide, built with overlapping oaken planks – holding upwards of thirty men.

A boats construction is usually its defining feature; and the measure of its success or failure at sea. There are several key components which make up the main structure of most boats though. These are, the ‘hull’; the main component that provides buoyancy. The ‘gunnel’; the sides of the boat, offering protection from the water and making it harder to sink. The ‘deck’; the roughly horizontal, but chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat (more commonly found in ships), and above the deck are the ‘superstructures.’ Underneath is the ‘cabin’, which similarly to the ‘superstructure’ will have many constituent parts. Hulls are the most important part of the boat, and the type of hull used is of vital importance; for example, going to sea requires a hull which is more stable than a hull used for sailing rivers (which can be more flat/round).

Until the mid-nineteenth century most boats were constructed using natural materials; primarily wood although reed, bark and animal skins were also used. This changed with the industrial revolution however, when many boats were made with iron or steel frames (now readily available and reasonably inexpensive to construct) – but still planked in wood. Initially, iron was only used in discrete areas in a wooden hull needing greater strength, (e.g. as deck knees, hanging knees, knee riders and the like). Then, in the form of plates riveted together and