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    Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology
    Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology
    Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology
    Ebook1,897 pages59 hours

    Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology

    By Rose Sinclair

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    About this ebook

    This major textbook is designed for students studying textiles and fashion at higher and undergraduate level, as well as those needing a comprehensive and authoritative overview of textile materials and processes. The first part of the book reviews the main types of natural and synthetic fibres and their properties. Part two provides a systematic review of the key processes involved first in converting fibres into yarns and then transforming yarns into fabrics. Part three discusses the range of range of finishing techniques for fabrics. The final part of the book looks specifically at the transformation of fabric into apparel, from design and manufacture to marketing. With contributions from leading experts in their fields, this major book provides the definitive one-volume guide to textile manufacture.
    • Provides comprehensive coverage of the types and properties of textile fibres to yarn and fabric manufacture, fabric finishing, apparel production and fashion
    • Focused on the needs of college and undergraduate students studying textiles or fashion courses
    • Each chapter ends with a summary to emphasise key points, a comprehensive self-review section, and project ideas are also provided
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateNov 8, 2014
    ISBN9780857095619
    Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology

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      Book preview

      Textiles and Fashion - Rose Sinclair

      Textiles and Fashion

      Materials, Design and Technology

      Editor

      Rose Sinclair

      Table of Contents

      Cover image

      Title page

      The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing

      Copyright

      Contributors

      Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles

      Preface

      Acknowledgements

      How to Use this Book

      Part 1. Fibre Types

      Chapter 1. Understanding Textile Fibres and Their Properties: What is a Textile Fibre?

      Learning Objectives

      1.1. Introduction

      1.2. Types of Textile Fibres

      1.3. Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics

      1.4. Fibre Properties

      1.5. Fibre Length, Shape and Diameter

      1.6. Fibre Colour and Lustre

      1.7. Fibre Fineness

      1.8. Fibre Strength, Flexibility and Abrasion Resistance

      1.9. Moisture Absorbency

      1.10. Electrical Properties of Fibres

      1.11. Thermal Properties of Fibres

      1.12. Chemical Reactivity and Resistance

      1.13. Case Studies: From Fibre Properties to Textile Products

      1.14. Summary

      1.15. Project Ideas

      1.16. Revision Questions

      Chapter 2. Natural Textile Fibres: Vegetable Fibres

      Learning Objectives

      2.1. Introduction

      2.2. Cotton

      2.3. Other Seed Fibres

      2.4. Bast Fibre

      2.5. Other Bast Fibres

      2.6. Sustainability Issues/Eco Issues

      2.7. Case Studies

      2.8. Future Trends

      2.9. Summary

      2.10. Project Ideas

      2.11. Revision Questions

      Chapter 3. Natural Textile Fibres: Animal and Silk Fibres

      Learning Objectives

      3.1. Introduction

      3.2. Wool Fibres

      3.3. Silk Fibres

      3.4. Other Specialty Hair Fibres

      3.5. Applications of Natural Protein Fibres

      3.6. Sustainability and Ecological Issues

      3.7. Future Trends

      3.8. Summary

      3.9. Project Ideas

      3.10. Revision Questions

      Chapter 4. Synthetic Textile Fibers: Regenerated Cellulose Fibers

      Learning Objectives

      4.1. Introduction

      4.2. Viscose Rayon

      4.3. Lyocell Rayon

      4.4. Cellulose Acetate

      4.5. Applications

      4.6. Case Study

      4.7. Future Trends

      4.8. Summary

      4.9. Project Ideas

      4.10. Revision Questions

      Chapter 5. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyamide, Polyester and Aramid Fibres

      Learning Objectives

      5.1. Introduction

      5.2. Classification of Fibres

      5.3. Polyamide Fibres

      5.4. Polyester Fibres

      5.5. Aramid Fibres

      5.6. Blended Fibres: Key Issues

      5.7. Case Study: Polyester Fibres for Apparel and Clothing Applications

      5.8. Future Trends

      5.9. Summary

      5.10. Project Ideas

      5.11. Revision Questions

      5.12. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 6. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyolefin, Elastomeric and Acrylic Fibres

      Learning Objectives

      6.1. Introduction

      6.2. Polypropylene (PP) Fibres

      6.3. Other Polyolefin Fibres

      6.4. Acrylic Fibres

      6.5. Modacrylic Fibres

      6.6. Elastomeric Fibres

      6.7. Case Study: Why are There So Many End-Uses for Polypropylene (PP) Fibres, but So Few in Apparel?

      6.8. Future Trends

      6.9. Summary

      6.10. Project Ideas

      6.11. Revision Questions

      6.12. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 7. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Non-polymer Fibres

      Learning Objectives

      7.1. Introduction

      7.2. Carbon Fibres

      7.3. Glass Fibres

      7.4. Metallic Fibres

      7.5. Ceramic Fibres

      7.6. Case Study: The Use of CFRP in Sporting Goods

      7.7. Future Trends

      7.8. Summary Points

      7.9. Project Ideas

      7.10. Revision Questions

      Part 2. Manufacturing Textiles: Yarn to Fabric

      Chapter 8. Conversion of Fibre to Yarn: An Overview

      Learning Objectives

      8.1. Introduction

      8.2. Classification of Yarns

      8.3. Staple-Fibre Yarns

      8.4. Filament Yarns

      8.5. Fancy Yarns

      8.6. Staple-Fibre Yarn Manufacturing

      8.7. Future Trends

      8.8. Summary

      8.9. Project Ideas

      8.10. Revision Questions

      Chapter 9. Fibre to Yarn: Staple-Yarn Spinning

      Learning Objectives

      9.1. Introduction

      9.2. Preparation of Cotton and Other Short Staple Fibres

      9.3. Preparation of Wool and Other Long Staple Fibres: The Woollen System

      9.4. Preparation of Wool and Other Long Staple Fibres: The Worsted System

      9.5. Spinning Techniques for Staple Fibres

      9.6. Wrap-Spinning Techniques

      9.7. Future Trends

      9.8. Summary Points

      9.9. Project Ideas

      9.10. Revision Questions

      Chapter 10. Fibre to Yarn: Filament Yarn Spinning

      Learning Objectives

      10.1. Introduction

      10.2. Fibre-Extrusion Spinning

      10.3. Yarn Texturing

      10.4. Bulk Continuous Fibre (BCF) Technology

      10.5. Properties of CF Yarns

      10.6. Adding Functionality to Yarn

      10.7. Applications

      10.8. Future Trends

      10.9. Project Ideas

      10.10. Revision Questions

      Chapter 11. Yarn to Fabric: Weaving

      Learning Objectives

      11.1. Introduction

      11.2. Looms

      11.3. Making a Warp and Dressing the Loom

      11.4. Documentation

      11.5. Pattern Drafting

      11.6. Weave Structures

      11.7. Derivative-Weave Structures

      11.8. Starting to Weave

      11.9. Designing for Woven Textiles

      11.10. Designing for the Jacquard Loom

      11.11. Tapestry Weaving

      11.12. Case Study: Honeycomb Woven Structures

      11.13. Finishing

      11.14. Tips for Weaving

      11.15. Future Trends

      11.16. Summary

      11.17. Revision Questions

      11.18. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 12. Yarn to Fabric: Knitting

      Learning Objectives

      12.1. Introduction

      12.2. Loop Formation

      12.3. Knitting Terminology

      12.4. Weft-Knitted Structures

      12.5. Warp Knitted Structures

      12.6. Knitting Developments

      12.7. The Impact of Computers in Design and Technology

      12.8. Quality Control

      12.9. Case Study

      12.10. Future Trends

      12.11. Summary

      12.12. Project Ideas

      12.13. Revision Questions

      12.14. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 13. Fibre to Fabric: Nonwoven Fabrics

      Learning Objectives

      13.1. Introduction

      13.2. Technologies for the Formation of Nonwoven Fabrics

      13.3. Characteristics of Nonwoven Fabric Structure and Properties

      13.4. Properties and Performance of Nonwoven Fabrics

      13.5. Methods for the Evaluation of Nonwoven Fabric Structure, Properties and Performance

      13.6. Nonwoven Fabrics and Their Applications

      13.7. Nonwoven Fabrics in Fashion

      13.8. Future Trends

      13.9. Project Ideas

      13.10. Revision Questions

      13.11. Sources of Further Information

      Chapter 14. Yarn to Fabric: Specialist Fabric Structures

      Learning Objectives

      14.1. Introduction

      14.2. Triaxial Fabrics

      14.3. Pile Fabrics

      14.4. Knotted Fabrics

      14.5. Braided Fabrics

      14.6. Three-Dimensional Fabrics And Future Developments

      14.7. Summary

      14.8. Project Ideas

      14.9. Revision Questions

      Chapter 15. Yarn to Fabric: Intelligent Textiles

      Learning Objectives

      15.1. Introduction

      15.2. What Are Intelligent Textiles Used For?

      15.3. Case Study: Biomimetics and Intelligent Textiles

      15.4. Future Trends

      15.5. Summary

      15.6. Project Ideas

      15.7. Revision Questions

      15.8. Sources of Further Information And Advice

      Part 3. Fabric Finishing and Applications

      Chapter 16. Fabric Finishing: Joining Fabrics Using Stitched Seams

      Learning Objectives

      16.1. Introduction

      16.2. The Stitch

      16.3. The Seam

      16.4. Sewing Machines

      16.5. Seam Quality Problems

      16.6. Future Trends

      16.7. Summary

      16.8. Case Study and Project Idea

      16.9. Revision Questions

      Chapter 17. Joining Fabrics: Fastenings

      Learning Objectives

      17.1. Introduction

      17.2. Zips

      17.3. Buttons

      17.4. Hook-and-Loop FastenERS

      17.5. Press Fasteners

      17.6. Cords, Ties and Belts

      17.7. Hook-and-Eye Fasteners

      17.8. Hook-and-Bar Fasteners

      17.9. Buckles and Adjustable Fasteners

      17.10. Summary

      17.11. Project Ideas

      17.12. Revision Questions

      17.13. Sources of Further Information

      Chapter 18. Fabric Finishing: Pretreatment/Textile Wet Processing

      Learning Objectives

      18.1. Introduction

      18.2. Processing Methods

      18.3. Fabric Preparation Processes

      18.4. Quality Control in Fabric Preparation

      18.5. Environmental Impact and Sustainability of Fabric Preparation

      18.6. Research and Future Trends

      18.7. Summary

      18.8. Case Study

      18.9. Project Ideas

      18.10. Revision Questions

      18.11. Sources of Further Information

      Chapter 19. Fabric Finishing: Dyeing and Colouring

      Learning Objectives

      19.1. Introduction

      19.2. Colour Theory

      19.3. Selection of Dyes

      19.4. The Dyeing Process

      19.5. Classes of Dye for Different Fibre Types

      19.6. Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural and Synthetic Dyes

      19.7. Ensuring Quality and Effectiveness of Dyeing

      19.8. Environmental Impact of Dyeing

      19.9. Research and Future Trends

      19.10. Summary

      19.11. Case Study: Reactive Dyeing of Knitted Cotton Garments

      19.12. Project Ideas

      19.13. Revision Questions

      19.14. Sources of Further Information

      Chapter 20. Fabric Finishing: Printing Textiles

      Learning Objectives

      20.1. Introduction

      20.2. Direct Printing

      20.3. Other Printing Techniques

      20.4. Traditional Printing Methods

      20.5. Screen Printing

      20.6. Transfer Printing

      20.7. Digital Inkjet Printing

      20.8. Impact of CAD/CAM on the Design of Printed Textiles

      20.9. Research and Future Trends

      20.10. Summary

      20.11. Case Study

      20.12. Project Ideas

      20.13. Revision Questions

      20.14. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 21. Applications of Textile Products

      Learning Objectives

      21.1. Introduction

      21.2. Apparel

      21.3. Furnishing or Interior Textiles, Including Household Products

      21.4. Technical Textiles

      21.5. Textile Art

      21.6. Textile Industry

      21.7. Case Study: Traditional Bedouin al Sadu Hand-Woven Products and Contemporary Digital Applications

      21.8. Future Trends

      21.9. Summary

      21.10. Revision Questions

      21.11. Sources of Information

      Chapter 22. Sustainable Textile Production

      Learning Objectives

      22.1. Introduction

      22.2. Key Issues in Sustainability

      22.3. The Textile Supply Chain

      22.4. Assessing the Environmental Impact of the Textile Supply Chain

      22.5. Minimising the Environmental Impact of the Textile Supply Chain

      22.6. Case Study: Creating Sustainable and Socially Responsible Fashion

      22.7. Summary and Project Ideas

      22.8. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Part 4. Developing Textile Products: The Case of Apparel

      Chapter 23. Material Culture: Social Change, Culture, Fashion and Textiles in Europe

      Learning Objectives

      23.1. Introduction

      23.2. Art and Society

      23.3. Politics

      23.4. War

      23.5. Impact of Culture on Design, Fashion and Textiles

      23.6. Definitions of Textile Culture and Fashion Culture: Are They the Same?

      23.7. Project Ideas

      23.8. Revision Questions

      23.9. Further Reading

      Chapter 24. Fashion and Culture: Global Culture and Fashion

      Learning Objectives

      24.1. Introduction

      24.2. Impact of Culture in European and non-European Arenas

      24.3. Case Study

      24.4. Future Trends

      24.5. Summary Points

      24.6. Project Ideas

      24.7. Revision Questions

      24.8. Further Reading

      Chapter 25. Fashion and the Fashion Industry

      Learning Objectives

      25.1. Introduction

      25.2. Emergence, Development and Change in Fashion

      25.3. The Standard Fashion-Trend Cycle

      25.4. Why Fashion Changes?

      25.5. Revision Questions

      25.6. Summary Points

      Magazines/Periodicals

      Chapter 26. Visual Design Techniques for Fashion

      Learning Objectives

      26.1. Introduction

      26.2. Why Consumers Buy New Designs

      26.3. Market Research Methods for Identifying Emerging Consumer Needs

      26.4. Finding Inspiration

      26.5. Aesthetic Qualities in a Good Design

      26.6. Design Tools

      26.7. Moving from Sample to Production

      26.8. Future Trends: Impact of New Technologies/Processes

      26.9. Case Study: The Development of a Garment

      26.10. Summary

      26.11. Project Ideas

      26.12. Revision Questions

      26.13. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 27. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) of Apparel and other Textile Products

      Learning Objectives

      27.1. Introduction

      27.2. Fashion and Textile Software Programs

      27.3. Using CAD to Design Fashion Products

      27.4. Other Uses of CAD in Fashion Design

      27.5. CAM in Fashion and Textiles

      27.6. Case Studies: Fashion Designers Interviewed by Sandra Burke

      27.7. Summary Points and Project Ideas

      27.8. Revision Questions

      27.9. Sources of Further Information and Advice

      Chapter 28. Adding Functionality to Garments

      Learning Objectives

      28.1. Introduction

      28.2. Factors Affecting Garment Function

      28.3. Improving Fabric Handle and Tailorability

      28.4. Reducing Wrinkling

      28.5. Reducing Pilling

      28.6. Reducing Bagging

      28.7. Improving Fabric and Garment Drape

      28.8. Improving Fabric and Garment Durability

      28.9. Research and Future Trends

      28.10. Summary

      28.11. Project Ideas

      28.12. Revision Questions

      Chapter 29. Improving the Comfort of Garments

      Learning Objectives

      29.1. Introduction

      29.2. Tactile Comfort

      29.3. Thermo-Physiological (Thermal) Comfort

      29.4. Measuring Physiological Comfort

      29.5. Psychological Comfort

      29.6. Improving Waterproofing and Breathability

      29.7. Research and Future Trends

      29.8. Summary

      29.9. Case Study

      29.10. Project Ideas

      29.11. Revision Questions

      Chapter 30. The Marketing of Fashion

      Learning Objectives

      30.1. Introduction

      30.2. What Is Marketing?

      30.3. The Marketing of Fashion

      30.4. Targeting a Market

      30.5. Branding

      30.6. The Traditional Media Channels

      30.7. New Technologies as Media Channels

      30.8. The Marketing Plan

      30.9. Future Trends

      30.10. Summary Points

      30.11. Project Ideas and Revision Questions

      30.12. Sources of Further Information

      Chapter 31. The Care of Apparel Products

      31.1. Introduction

      31.2. Wear of Garments

      31.3. Stains

      31.4. Laundering

      31.5. Care Labelling

      31.6. Clothing Storage

      31.7. Conclusions and Future Trends

      31.8. Sources of Further Information

      31.9. Summary Points

      31.10. Project Ideas

      31.11. Revision Questions

      Glossary

      Index

      The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing

      The Textile Institute is a unique organisation in textiles, clothing and footwear. Incorporated in England by a Royal Charter granted in 1925, the Institute has individual and corporate members in over 90 countries. The aim of the Institute is to facilitate learning, recognise achievement, reward excellence and disseminate information within the global textiles, clothing and footwear industries.

      Historically, The Textile Institute has published books of interest to its members and the textile industry. To maintain this policy, the Institute has entered into partnership with Woodhead Publishing Limited to ensure that Institute members and the textile industry continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology.

      Most Woodhead titles on textiles are now published in collaboration with The Textile Institute. Through this arrangement, the Institute provides an Editorial Board which advises Woodhead on appropriate titles for future publication and suggests possible editors and authors for these books. Each book published under this arrangement carries the Institute’s logo.

      Woodhead books published in collaboration with The Textile Institute are offered to Textile Institute members at a substantial discount. These books, together with those published by The Textile Institute that are still in print, are offered on the Elsevier website at: http://store.elsevier.com/. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly from the Institute’s website at: www.textileinstitutebooks.com.

      A list of Woodhead books on textile science and technology, most of which have been published in collaboration with The Textile Institute, can be found towards the end of the contents pages.

      Copyright

      Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute

      Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

      80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge, CB22 3HJ, UK

      225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

      Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, UK

      Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

      Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier website at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material.

      Notice

      No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made.

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      Library of Congress Control Number: 2014942758

      ISBN 978-1-84569-931-4 (print)

      ISBN 978-0-85709-561-9 (online)

      For information on all Woodhead Publishing publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/

      Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals www.tnq.co.in

      Printed and bound in the United Kingdom

      Contributors

      R. Alagirusamy,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

      K.M. Babu,     Bapuji Institute of Engineering Technology, Davanagere, India

      S. Burke,     Burke Publishing, London, UK

      K. Canavan,     University of Wales Institute Cardiff, Cardiff, UK

      J. Chen,     The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

      A. Das,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

      B.L. Deopura,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

      L. Drew,     The Glasgow School of Art, Glasgow, UK

      I.A. Elhawary,     Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

      J. Fan,     Cornell University, New York, NY, USA

      J. Gaimster,     London College of Fashion, London, UK

      R.H. Gong,     University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

      P. Hauser,     North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

      L. Hunter,     CSIR and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

      T. Kikutani,     Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

      C. Lawrence,     University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

      N. Mao,     University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

      R.R. Mather,     Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK

      H. Mattila,     Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland

      K. McKelvey,     Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

      J. McLoughlin,     Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

      A. Mitchell,     Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

      R.K. Nayak,     RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

      N.V. Padaki,     Central Silk Technological Research Institute, Guwahati, India

      R. Padhye,     RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

      E.J. Power,     University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK

      P.R. Richards,     Richtex Textile Consultancy, Newark, UK

      S.J. Russell,     University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

      C. Ryder,     Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

      M. Shioya,     Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

      R. Sinclair,     Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK

      S. Stankard,     Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Selangor, Malaysia

      M. Tomaney,     University for the Creative Arts, Epsom, UK

      H. Ujiie,     Philadelphia University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

      C. Yu,     Dong Hua University, Shanghai, China

      Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles

      1 Watson’s textile design and colour Seventh edition

      Edited by Z. Grosicki

      2 Watson’s advanced textile design

      Edited by Z. Grosicki

      3 Weaving Second edition

      P. R. Lord and M. H. Mohamed

      4 Handbook of textile fibres Volume 1: Natural fibres

      J. Gordon Cook

      5 Handbook of textile fibres Volume 2: Man-made fibres

      J. Gordon Cook

      6 Recycling textile and plastic waste

      Edited by A. R. Horrocks

      7 New fibers Second edition

      T. Hongu and G. O. Phillips

      8 Atlas of fibre fracture and damage to textiles Second edition

      J. W. S. Hearle, B. Lomas and W. D. Cooke

      9 Ecotextile ‘98

      Edited by A. R. Horrocks

      10 Physical testing of textiles

      B. P. Saville

      11 Geometric symmetry in patterns and tilings

      C. E. Horne

      12 Handbook of technical textiles

      Edited by A. R. Horrocks and S. C. Anand

      13 Textiles in automotive engineering

      W. Fung and J. M. Hardcastle

      14 Handbook of textile design

      J. Wilson

      15 High-performance fibres

      Edited by J. W. S. Hearle

      16 Knitting technology Third edition

      D. J. Spencer

      17 Medical textiles

      Edited by S. C. Anand

      18 Regenerated cellulose fibres

      Edited by C. Woodings

      19 Silk, mohair, cashmere and other luxury fibres

      Edited by R. R. Franck

      20 Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing

      Edited by X. M. Tao

      21 Yarn texturing technology

      J. W. S. Hearle, L. Hollick and D. K. Wilson

      22 Encyclopedia of textile finishing

      H-K. Rouette

      23 Coated and laminated textiles

      W. Fung

      24 Fancy yarns

      R. H. Gong and R. M. Wright

      25 Wool: Science and technology

      Edited by W. S. Simpson and G. Crawshaw

      26 Dictionary of textile finishing

      H-K. Rouette

      27 Environmental impact of textiles

      K. Slater

      28 Handbook of yarn production

      P. R. Lord

      29 Textile processing with enzymes

      Edited by A. Cavaco-Paulo and G. Gübitz

      30 The China and Hong Kong denim industry

      Y. Li, L. Yao and K. W. Yeung

      31 The World Trade Organization and international denim trading

      Y. Li, Y. Shen, L. Yao and E. Newton

      32 Chemical finishing of textiles

      W. D. Schindler and P. J. Hauser

      33 Clothing appearance and fit

      J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter

      34 Handbook of fibre rope technology

      H. A. McKenna, J. W. S. Hearle and N. O’Hear

      35 Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics

      J. Hu

      36 Synthetic fibres: Nylon, polyester, acrylic, polyolefin

      Edited by J. E. McIntyre

      37 Woollen and worsted woven fabric design

      E. G. Gilligan

      38 Analytical electrochemistry in textiles

      P. Westbroek, G. Priniotakis and P. Kiekens

      39 Bast and other plant fibres

      R. R. Franck

      40 Chemical testing of textiles

      Edited by Q. Fan

      41 Design and manufacture of textile composites

      Edited by A. C. Long

      42 Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand

      Edited by H. M. Behery

      43 New millennium fibers

      T. Hongu, M. Takigami and G. O. Phillips

      44 Textiles for protection

      Edited by R. A. Scott

      45 Textiles in sport

      Edited by R. Shishoo

      46 Wearable electronics and photonics

      Edited by X. M. Tao

      47 Biodegradable and sustainable fibres

      Edited by R. S. Blackburn

      48 Medical textiles and biomaterials for healthcare

      Edited by S. C. Anand, M. Miraftab, S. Rajendran and J. F. Kennedy

      49 Total colour management in textiles

      Edited by J. Xin

      50 Recycling in textiles

      Edited by Y. Wang

      51 Clothing biosensory engineering

      Y. Li and A. S. W. Wong

      52 Biomechanical engineering of textiles and clothing

      Edited by Y. Li and D. X-Q. Dai

      53 Digital printing of textiles

      Edited by H. Ujiie

      54 Intelligent textiles and clothing

      Edited by H. R. Mattila

      55 Innovation and technology of women’s intimate apparel

      W. Yu, J. Fan, S. C. Harlock and S. P. Ng

      56 Thermal and moisture transport in fibrous materials

      Edited by N. Pan and P. Gibson

      57 Geosynthetics in civil engineering

      Edited by R. W. Sarsby

      58 Handbook of nonwovens

      Edited by S. Russell

      59 Cotton: Science and technology

      Edited by S. Gordon and Y-L. Hsieh

      60 Ecotextiles

      Edited by M. Miraftab and A. R. Horrocks

      61 Composite forming technologies

      Edited by A. C. Long

      62 Plasma technology for textiles

      Edited by R. Shishoo

      63 Smart textiles for medicine and healthcare

      Edited by L. Van Langenhove

      64 Sizing in clothing

      Edited by S. Ashdown

      65 Shape memory polymers and textiles

      J. Hu

      66 Environmental aspects of textile dyeing

      Edited by R. Christie

      67 Nanofibers and nanotechnology in textiles

      Edited by P. Brown and K. Stevens

      68 Physical properties of textile fibres Fourth edition

      W. E. Morton and J. W. S. Hearle

      69 Advances in apparel production

      Edited by C. Fairhurst

      70 Advances in fire retardant materials

      Edited by A. R. Horrocks and D. Price

      71 Polyesters and polyamides

      Edited by B. L. Deopura, R. Alagirusamy, M. Joshi and B. S. Gupta

      72 Advances in wool technology

      Edited by N. A. G. Johnson and I. Russell

      73 Military textiles

      Edited by E. Wilusz

      74 3D fibrous assemblies: Properties, applications and modelling of three-dimensional textile structures

      J. Hu

      75 Medical and healthcare textiles

      Edited by S. C. Anand, J. F. Kennedy, M. Miraftab and S. Rajendran

      76 Fabric testing

      Edited by J. Hu

      77 Biologically inspired textiles

      Edited by A. Abbott and M. Ellison

      78 Friction in textile materials

      Edited by B. S. Gupta

      79 Textile advances in the automotive industry

      Edited by R. Shishoo

      80 Structure and mechanics of textile fibre assemblies

      Edited by P. Schwartz

      81 Engineering textiles: Integrating the design and manufacture of textile products

      Edited by Y. E. El-Mogahzy

      82 Polyolefin fibres: Industrial and medical applications

      Edited by S. C. O. Ugbolue

      83 Smart clothes and wearable technology

      Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson

      84 Identification of textile fibres

      Edited by M. Houck

      85 Advanced textiles for wound care

      Edited by S. Rajendran

      86 Fatigue failure of textile fibres

      Edited by M. Miraftab

      87 Advances in carpet technology

      Edited by K. Goswami

      88 Handbook of textile fibre structure Volume 1 and Volume 2

      Edited by S. J. Eichhorn, J. W. S. Hearle, M. Jaffe and T. Kikutani

      89 Advances in knitting technology

      Edited by K-F. Au

      90 Smart textile coatings and laminates

      Edited by W. C. Smith

      91 Handbook of tensile properties of textile and technical fibres

      Edited by A. R. Bunsell

      92 Interior textiles: Design and developments

      Edited by T. Rowe

      93 Textiles for cold weather apparel

      Edited by J. T. Williams

      94 Modelling and predicting textile behaviour

      Edited by X. Chen

      95 Textiles, polymers and composites for buildings

      Edited by G. Pohl

      96 Engineering apparel fabrics and garments

      J. Fan and L. Hunter

      97 Surface modification of textiles

      Edited by Q. Wei

      98 Sustainable textiles

      Edited by R. S. Blackburn

      99 Advances in yarn spinning technology

      Edited by C. A. Lawrence

      100 Handbook of medical textiles

      Edited by V. T. Bartels

      101 Technical textile yarns

      Edited by R. Alagirusamy and A. Das

      102 Applications of nonwovens in technical textiles

      Edited by R. A. Chapman

      103 Colour measurement: Principles, advances and industrial applications

      Edited by M. L. Gulrajani

      104 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering applications

      Edited by R. Fangueiro

      105 New product development in textiles: Innovation and production

      Edited by L.Horne

      106 Improving comfort in clothing

      Edited by G. Song

      107 Advances in textile biotechnology

      Edited by V. A. Nierstrasz and A. Cavaco-Paulo

      108 Textiles for hygiene and infection control

      Edited by B. McCarthy

      109 Nanofunctional textiles

      Edited by Y. Li

      110 Joining textiles: Principles and applications

      Edited by I. Jones and G. Stylios

      111 Soft computing in textile engineering

      Edited by A. Majumdar

      112 Textile design

      Edited by A. Briggs-Goode and K. Townsend

      113 Biotextiles as medical implants

      Edited by M. W. King, B. S. Gupta and R. Guidoin

      114 Textile thermal bioengineering

      Edited by Y. Li

      115 Woven textile structure

      B. K. Behera and P. K. Hari

      116 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing Volume 1: Principles, processes and types of dyes

      Edited by M. Clark

      117 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing Volume 2: Applications of dyes

      Edited by M. Clark

      118 Handbook of natural fibres Volume 1: Types, properties and factors affecting breeding and cultivation

      Edited by R. Kozłowski

      119 Handbook of natural fibres Volume 2: Processing and applications

      Edited by R. Kozłowski

      120 Functional textiles for improved performance, protection and health

      Edited by N. Pan and G. Sun

      121 Computer technology for textiles and apparel

      Edited by J. Hu

      122 Advances in military textiles and personal equipment

      Edited by E. Sparks

      123 Specialist yarn and fabric structures

      Edited by R. H. Gong

      124 Handbook of sustainable textile production

      M. I. Tobler-Rohr

      125 Woven textiles: Principles, developments and applications

      Edited by K. Gandhi

      126 Textiles and fashion: Materials, design and technology

      Edited by R. Sinclair

      127 Industrial cutting of textile materials

      I. Viļumsone-Nemes

      128 Colour design: Theories and applications

      Edited by J. Best

      129 False twist textured yarns

      C. Atkinson

      130 Modelling, simulation and control of the dyeing process

      R. Shamey and X. Zhao

      131 Process control in textile manufacturing

      Edited by A. Majumdar, A. Das, R. Alagirusamy and V. K. Kothari

      132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles

      Edited by P. A. Annis

      133 Smart textiles for protection

      Edited by R. A. Chapman

      134 Functional nanofibers and applications

      Edited by Q. Wei

      135 The global textile and clothing industry: Technological advances and future challenges

      Edited by R. Shishoo

      136 Simulation in textile technology: Theory and applications

      Edited by D. Veit

      137 Pattern cutting for clothing using CAD: How to use Lectra Modaris pattern cutting software

      M. Stott

      138 Advances in the dyeing and finishing of technical textiles

      M. L. Gulrajani

      139 Multidisciplinary know-how for smart textiles developers

      Edited by T. Kirstein

      140 Handbook of fire resistant textiles

      Edited by F. Selcen Kilinc

      141 Handbook of footwear design and manufacture

      Edited by A. Luximon

      142 Textile-led design for the active ageing population

      Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson

      143 Optimizing decision making in the apparel supply chain using artificial intelligence (AI): From production to retail

      Edited by W. K. Wong, Z. X. Guo and S. Y. S. Leung

      144 Mechanisms of flat weaving technology

      V. V. Choogin, P. Bandara and E. V. Chepelyuk

      145 Innovative jacquard textile design using digital technologies

      F. Ng and J. Zhou

      146 Advances in shape memory polymers

      J. Hu

      147 Design of clothing manufacturing processes: A systematic approach to planning, scheduling and control

      J. Gersak

      148 Anthropometry, apparel sizing and design

      D. Gupta and N. Zakaria

      149 Silk: Processing, properties and applications

      Edited by K. Murugesh Babu

      150 Advances in filament yarn spinning of textiles and polymers

      Edited by D. Zhang

      151 Designing apparel for consumers: The impact of body shape and size

      Edited by M.-E. Faust and S. Carrier

      152 Fashion supply chain management using radio frequency identification (RFID) technologies

      Edited by W. K. Wong and Z. X. Guo

      153 High performance textiles and their applications

      Edited by C. A. Lawrence

      154 Protective clothing: Managing thermal stress

      Edited by F. Wang and C. Gao

      155 Composite nonwoven materials

      Edited by D. Das and B. Pourdeyhimi

      156 Functional finishes for textiles: Improving comfort, performance and protection

      Edited by R. Paul

      157 Assessing the environmental impact of textiles and the clothing supply chain

      S. S. Muthu

      158 Braiding technology for textiles

      Y. Kyosev

      159 Principles of colour appearance and measurement Volume 1: Object appearance, colour perception and instrumental measurement

      A. K. R. Choudhury

      160 Principles of colour appearance and measurement Volume 2: Visual measurement of colour, colour comparison and management

      A. K. R. Choudhury

      Preface

      Textiles and fashion are profoundly inter linked, and remain chained together by a series of interlocking processes, and an understanding of the elements that make up this interrelationship is explored through the individual chapters in Textiles and Fashion.

      The Oxford dictionary defines ‘Fashion as a currently popular style of clothing, or behaviour, etc., or the production and marketing of new styles of clothing and cosmetics’, it defines textiles as ‘a type of cloth or woven fabric or relating to fabric or weaving’.

      In an ever increasing consumer-lead world, more weight is given to ‘fashion’ and its impact, on our everyday lives, yet the acknowledgement should be that textiles and fashion coexist and cannot exist without each other, and the need to understand how each of these areas coexist and the frameworks of operation are therefore an important part of the repertoire of the twenty-first-century textile or fashion designer, practitioner, technologist or those who engage with fashion and textiles on whatever level.

      The mutual dependency of both these industries on each other, are even more relevant in a twenty-first-century design continuum. Teaching textiles as I have done in a ‘Design’ department, my textiles and fashion thinking has broadened, leading me to increasingly question how to deliver such specialist knowledge within a nonspecialist domain. It has also lead to surprising discoveries of material cognisance, and wider application of the textiles ‘tacit’ knowledge in other design disciplines. The application of textiles practises in smart materials, e-textiles and impact on areas of 3D printing, the utilisation of other technologies to explore ‘textile craft practices’, have all contributed to the development of chapters and thinking throughout this book. The development of a designer who has ‘hybrid’ skills and knowledge to imagine new design futures should be encouraged, not only in our design colleges, but also in our design studios, and making spaces.

      This book has also been developed based on the ever growing need of the way in which fashion and textiles is taught. First, textiles and fashion is still for the most part still taught in specialist colleges, where students on fashion and textiles courses are often in the same building but not in the same lectures, or to those on other Design courses, often regarded as ‘nonspecialists’ who may not be specialising in fashion or textiles but want to utilise ‘Textiles or Fashion’ as the vehicle for output.

      There is also the growing design ‘materials’ specialists who realise that it is the inherent properties of textile fibres or textile processes that could be utilised outside its normal domain, or those interested in the construction process who see the validity of the architectural nature of fashion construction as a process to do this through. The development of new smart and technical textiles, alongside the growth of areas such as digital and 3D printing, highlight the ‘hybrid’ nature of what is considered today to be textiles and fashion. The new ‘designers’ no longer come just from traditional textile and fashion schools, this text will allow even these students or professionals to engage with this subject.

      This book provides a platform for an integrated study experience and researching additional information. Its aim is to provide a framework and platform from which to engage with a more holistic overview of the industry of textiles and fashion. This book seeks therefore to capture some of the diversity in textiles and fashion through the documentation of both the aesthetic and technical considerations that this topic entails, with the scope and the shape of each chapter shaped by the specialists that have contributed to the book.

      The contributors of this book come from an international background, and as such the textiles and fashion terminology throughout have been made consistent with recognised conventions.

      The Purpose of This Book

      Textiles and Fashion therefore provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamental topics one might be expected to cover when teaching or researching textiles and fashion, ranging from types and properties of textile fibres to yarn and fabric, through to manufacture, fabric finishing, apparel production and fashion. It is ideal both for college and undergraduate students studying textiles or fashion courses. Texts on material culture allow readers to see that textiles and fashion studies do not operate in a vacuum, but are influenced by a range of internal and external factors.

      For the lecturer, the book’s 31 chapters can be divided into specialised parts to create your own bespoke core reading material for students.

      For textile and fashion industry professionals, you have a single reference work that can be utilised to provide an instant guide to the key aspects of your professional practise.

      To those who are not specialists in the industry, this text book will allow you to explore individual aspects of the industry, providing a platform for initial discovery, and allowing the opportunity to further build on that knowledge though further reading and supporting project activities.

      Overview of the Parts of the Book

      The book is divided into 4 distinct parts.

      Part 1

      This part begins with an introduction to the types of fibres, with the first chapters reviewing the different kinds of natural and synthetic fibres and their properties, their uses and impact on textiles and fashion.

      Part 2

      This focuses primarily on the transition process from yarn to fabric, covering, spinning, weaving, knitting and nonwoven fabrics. This then moves on to discussing specialist fabric structures. The emergence of new smart intelligent textiles, e-textiles and their manufacture is discussed in this part.

      Part 3

      This reviews the importance of fabric finishes and applications, such as joining techniques, methods of applying colour to fabrics such as dyeing and colouring techniques, printing, which includes traditional techniques and the impact of digital printing is discussed in this part.

      Part 4

      This focuses on the development of apparel and clothing, with chapters on fashion, the impact of material culture on fashion, key issues in the fashion industry, including sustainability, visual design techniques, marketing, apparel and clothing manufacture and methods for improving apparel clothing, fabric functionality, testing and comfort.

      Glossary

      All the key terms used in the book are included in the glossary.

      Acknowledgements

      I would like to thank all of my friends and colleagues, in the fashion and textiles industry who have given their time and expertise to make this book possible. To all the contributors, it is their knowledge and passion of the textiles and fashion industry that has provided invaluable.

      To all the contributors who have provided the key elements for the book, that of the creative, technical and ‘tacit’ knowledge embedded in the practice of textiles and fashion, which contributes to such an ever-changing global industry.

      The editorial team at Woodhead Publishing, especially Francis and Anneka, for their unending support and guidance, throughout all stages of this publication.

      To my husband Audley, as my test reader, who now has an overview and knowledge of the textiles and fashion industry from all perspectives. To my mother, Bernice, who fuelled the love and passion of all things textiles and fashion, from making to understanding the value of good materials.

      Personally I have learnt a lot from this process, including how the connectedness between textiles and fashion remains ever constant, whether it be through the materials, the process, or through the sharing with others who have the same passion.

      How to Use this Book

      The book is divided into 31 chapters. Each chapter is laid out in the following way, learning objectives, introduction, key information, discussion on emerging trends and sustainable issues, key summary points and references, also a glossary of terms is included at the end of the book. Illustrations are also provided throughout the chapters to assist understanding and the learning process. Each chapter can be used on its own as an introduction to a longer piece of research, as each chapter has activities that can be linked to independent research and further reading.

      The case studies in each chapter demonstrate the different approaches that have been taken to explore aspects of creative, design and technological exploration.

      Part 1

      Fibre Types

      Outline

      Chapter 1. Understanding Textile Fibres and Their Properties: What is a Textile Fibre?

      Chapter 2. Natural Textile Fibres: Vegetable Fibres

      Chapter 3. Natural Textile Fibres: Animal and Silk Fibres

      Chapter 4. Synthetic Textile Fibers: Regenerated Cellulose Fibers

      Chapter 5. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyamide, Polyester and Aramid Fibres

      Chapter 6. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyolefin, Elastomeric and Acrylic Fibres

      Chapter 7. Synthetic Textile Fibres: Non-polymer Fibres

      Chapter 1

      Understanding Textile Fibres and Their Properties

      What is a Textile Fibre?

      R. Sinclair     Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK

      Abstract

      This chapter covers how you can identify key fibres used in fashion and textiles and understand the key properties and characteristics of fibres. A review of the different fibre types is given. You will learn how the key properties of fibres can be correlated with their key characteristics and how this can affect end-user requirements.

      Keywords

      Fibre; Natural; Properties; Regenerated; Synthetic; Textile; Yarn

      Learning Objectives

      At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

      • Understand and know the key classifications of textiles fibres

      • Understand key fibres and their properties

      • Understand how fibres can be used to develop particular attributes in textile products

      • Understand how the key characteristics and properties of fibres can affect end-user requirements

      1.1. Introduction

      Fibres are the foundation for all textile products and can either be natural (natural fibres) or man-made (manufactured or man-made rengenerated). Within these two types or groups, there are two main kinds of fibres:

      • Fibres of indefinite (very great) length, called filaments

      • Fibres of much shorter length, called staple fibres

      Filaments are generally combined and twisted to form yarns, whilst staple fibres are spun to create yarns. Yarns are then typically woven or knitted into fabrics. A piece of a fabric contains a huge number of fibres. For example, a small piece of lightweight fabric may contain over 100 million fibres (Morton & Hearle, 2001). Individual types of fibres can be used on their own or combined with other types of fibres to enhance the quality of the end-product. The process for combining fibres is known as blending. There are many well-known blended fibres on the market, such as Viyella, which is made of a blend of cotton and wool (Corbman, 1983).

      A fibre is defined as a small threadlike structure (Hearle, 2009). The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a ‘fibre’ (spelt ‘fiber’ in countries using American English) as ‘a generic term for any one of the various types of matter that form the basic element of a textile, and it is characterised by having a length at least 100 times its diameter’ (Anonymous, 2001). The Textile Institute defines a fibre as a ‘textile raw material, generally characterised by flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness’ (Anonymous, 2002). A similar industry definition is a ‘unit matter with a length at least 100 times its diameter, a structure of long chain molecules having a definite preferred orientation, a diameter of 10–200  microns (micrometres), and flexibility’ (Landi, 1998). All fibres have a molecular structure that contributes to their specific attributes and properties.

      The common characteristics of fibres from these definitions are:

      • The diameter of a fibre is small relative to its length

      • Properties of ‘flexibility’ and ‘fineness’ (a way of describing the thickness of a fibre)

      It is these key characteristics and qualities that make it possible to manipulate fibres to create the much larger structures that we are familiar with such as yarns and fabrics (Wilson, 2001). Key characteristics, such as fineness and flexibility, as well as length and diameter, have a profound effect on the properties of any textile product. Many of today’s textile products are made up of blends or mixtures of different types of fibres which give a particular mix of properties that best fit how the product will ultimately be used. There are several reasons why different fibres may be blended or mixed (Bunsell, 2009; Erberle, 2004):

      • To compensate for weaker attributes or properties of one type of fibre

      • To improve the performance of the resulting yarn or fabric

      • To improve or provide a different appearance

      • To improve the efficiency of processing, especially of spinning, weaving and knitting

      • To reduce costs

      The advantages and disadvantages of blending and mixing fibres are discussed in Part 1 and Part 2 of this book, and include environmental issues such as recycling blended yarns (Fletcher, 2008).

      1.2. Types of Textile Fibres

      Textile production up until the seventeenth century was predominantly a specialised domestic production system (cottage industry) mainly done by women (Gordon, 2011). The key fibres used were wool, cotton, silk, hemp and flax (for linen). The advent of the Industrial Revolution meant mechanisation of the production process, allowing new and much faster methods of manufacturing to emerge. Over the next 300  years, it would be both developments in processing and advances in engineered fibres that would change the textile landscape. Whilst the first man-made or manufactured fibres, namely regenerated cellulose fibres, were developed in the late nineteenth century, industrial production of these fibres only really started in the early twentieth century. Synthetic fibres were developed in the late 1930s and production took off after the Second World War. The quest in the 21st century is now to create fibres that are both functional and sustainable, along with smart fibres that can be adapted precisely to the changing needs of today’s users (Aldrich, 2007; Clarke-Braddock & Harris, 2012). Designers, whether in fashion or textiles, seek also to push the boundaries of design, by exploiting the key characteristics of fibres and their properties, such as Japanese textiles company NUNO, or fashion designer Issey Miyake, as characterised in his formidable ‘Pleats Please’ fashion range.

      There are three basic types of fibre groups:

      • Natural fibres

      • Regenerated fibres

      • Synthetic fibres

      Regenerated and synthetic fibres are collectively known as man-made or manufactured fibres. The various types of textile fibres are summarised in Figure 1.1. Images of some of these fibres are shown in Figure 1.2. Natural fibres are, as the name suggests, those which occur in nature, such as wool from sheep or cotton from cotton plants (Kozlowski, 2012a, 2012b). Natural fibres are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 of this book. Regenerated fibres are made from natural polymers that are not useable in their original form but can be regenerated (i.e. reformed) to create useful fibres (Woodings, 2001). One of first regenerated fibres was rayon, also referred to as viscose or viscose rayon, regenerated from wood pulp. Regenerated fibres are discussed in Chapter 4. The structure and properties of both natural and regenerated fibres are discussed in Eichhorn, Hearle, Jaffe, and Kikutani (2009b). In contrast, synthetic fibres are made by polymerising smaller molecules into larger ones in an industrial process (McIntyre, 2004). Synthetic fibres are discussed in Chapters 5–7.

      FIGURE 1.1   Types of textile fibres.

      Natural fibres can be divided into two main types:

      • Vegetable or cellulosic fibres (discussed in Chapter 2)

      • Animal or protein fibres (discussed in Chapter 3)

      There is also one natural mineral fibre, asbestos, though this is no longer used because it has been found to be carcinogenic. Natural rubber is sometimes included in classifications of natural fibres. Other products, such as leather, are also sometimes classified as natural fibres, but fall outside the standard definitions of fibres given above.

      Animal (protein)-based fibres can be divided into the following categories:

      • Wool (from sheep)

      • Hair (e.g. from goats, such as mohair and cashmere; or from rabbits, such as angora)

      • Silk (from silkworms)

      Wool fibres are discussed in Simpson and Crawshaw (2002) and Johnson and Russell (2008); silk is reviewed in Babu (2013) and Sonwalker (1993); whilst other animal fibres are covered in Franck (2001).

      Based on which part of the plant they come from, vegetable fibres can be divided into:

      • Seed (e.g. cotton)

      • Bast (fibres derived from the outer, or bast, layers of plant stems, e.g. flax, hemp and jute)

      • Leaf (e.g. sisal)

      Cotton is reviewed in Gordon and Hsieh (2006) and Hallett and Johnston (2010, 2014), whilst bast and other plant fibres are discussed in Franck (2005).

      FIGURE 1.2   Images of a range of fibres: (a) longitudinal view of cotton fibres showing their characteristic twist (Source: Gordon and Hsieh (2006).); (b) view of cross-sections of cotton fibres showing their characteristic dog-bone shape (Source: Kozlowski (2012a).); (c) wool fibres showing scales on the fibre surface (Source: Eichhorn et al. (2009b).); (d) silk fibres showing a trilobal cross-section (Source: Eichhorn et al. (2009b).); (e) nylon fibre with round cross-section (Source: Hearle, Lomas, and Cooke (1998).); (f) nylon fibres with hollow cross-sections in a woven fabric (Source: McIntyre (2004).); (g) viscose rayon fibre with a multilobal cross-section (Source: Hearle et al. (1998).); (h) acrylic fibre showing a dog-bone shaped cross-section. Source: Hearle et al. (1998).

      Manufactured, or man-made, fibres can be classified as:

      • Synthetic polymers, e.g. polyester, nylon (polyamide), acrylic, lycra

      • Regenerated, e.g. viscose, modal, acetate

      • Inorganic, e.g. carbon, glass, ceramic and metallic fibres

      Non-polymer fibres are discussed in Chapter 7 and are also reviewed in Eichhorn et al. (2009b). Synthetic polymer fibres can be classified in a number of ways. One classification is as follows (included with their technical definitions):

      • Polyesters: Defined as any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester of a substituted aromatic carboxylic acid, including, but not restricted to, substituted terephthalate units and parasubstituted hydroxybenzoate units (e.g. PET, PTT, PBT, PEN, PLA, high-modulus high-tenacity (HM-HT) fibres).

      • Polyamides: Defined as polymers having in the chain recurring amide groups, at least 85% of which are attached to aliphatic or cyclo-aliphatic groups (e.g. nylon, PVA, PVC).

      • Aramids: These are defined as polyamides, where each amide group is formed by the reaction of an amino group of one molecule with a carboxyl group of another (e.g. Kevlar, Nomex).

      • Olefins: Defined as manufactured fibres in which the basic unit is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of ethylene, propylene or other olefin units (e.g. polypropylene, polyethylene).

      • Elastomers: Defined as materials that, at room temperature, can be stretched repeatedly to at least twice their original length, and upon immediate release will return to approximately the original length (e.g. polyurethane, Lycra, Spandex).

      • Acrylics: Defined as manufactured fibres in which the basic substance is a long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of acrylonitrile units.

      These groups are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 and are also reviewed in McIntyre (2004), Deopora, Alagirusamy, Joshi, and Gupta (2008), Ugbolue (2009) and Eichhorn, Hearle, Jaffe, and Kikutani (2009a).

      1.3. Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics

      Fibres are commonly classified in the following way:

      • Staple fibres

      • Filaments

      • Tow

      As noted earlier, a staple fibre is a fibre of relatively short length, as is the case with most natural fibres, which range from a few millimetres (e.g. the shortest cotton fibres, known as linters) to around a metre (e.g. fibres from bast plants). Staple fibres are typically between 3 and 20  cm in length. Given the differences in average fibre length, cotton fibres (2–3  cm) and wool fibres (5  cm or more) are, for example, sometimes referred to as ‘short staple’ and ‘long staple’ fibres, respectively.

      A filament is a fibre of indefinite length. The various silks are the only natural filament fibres. Most regenerated and synthetic fibres are produced as filaments. These can be used in single or multifilament form. Some of these are also assembled to produce a ‘tow’ which is then cut or broken into required short lengths to produce staple fibres suitable for blending with other fibres, in particular with cotton or wool.

      A tow can mean two different things:

      • In the synthetic fibre industry, a tow is a large assembly of filaments that is destined to be cut into shorter (staple) fibres.

      • In the processing of natural fibres (flax), tow is the shorter fibre produced when the stalks are processed to extract the fibres (the long fibres are called line flax).

      A yarn has been defined as ‘a product of substantial length with a relatively small cross-section, consisting of fibres and/or filaments with or without twist’ (Anonymous, 2002; Elsasser, 2011). Another definition of yarn is ‘groupings of fibres to form a continuous strand’ (Cohen, 1997). Most staple fibres are made into yarn through a process of drawing, spinning and twisting that allows an assembly of fibres to hold together in a continuous strand (Briggs-Goode, 2011). There are different methods of spinning, depending on the fibre being spun, which are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10 and further identified and defined by El Mohaghzy (2009) and Cohen and Johnson (2010). Fibres can also be assembled into larger structures in other ways, e.g. felt and nonwoven fabrics. Nonwoven fabrics are discussed in Chapter 13.

      Yarns can be categorised in various ways. Basic yarn types are:

      • Monofilament

      • Multifilament

      • Staple or spun

      These types are illustrated in Figure 1.3. As their name suggests, monofilament yarns contain a single filament. More commonly, many filaments are twisted together to form multifilament yarns.

      As noted earlier, staple or spun yarns consist of staple fibres combined by spinning into a long, continuous strand of yarn. The key elements of a staple yarn are content, fineness and length, yarn ply and twist. There are many ways of creating a staple yarn from groups of fibres. Typical yarn formations include:

      • Single (fibres combined into a single yarn)

      • Ply/plied (two or more yarns twisted together)

      • Cabled/corded (several plied yarns twisted together)

      • Blended/compound (different fibre types combined in a yarn)

      • Core spun (a yarn with one type of fibre, usually a filament, in the centre (core) of the yarn, which is usually covered (wrapped) by staple fibres)

      • Fancy or effect yarns (yarns with special effects or deliberate irregularities, e.g. slubs (thicker portions) or loops occurring regularly or randomly along the length of the yarn)

      Some of these structures and the process of spinning yarns are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10. The combination of different fibres and yarn structures can be used to engineer a particular set of properties (Gong, 2011; Lawrence, 2010; Lord, 2003). Sewing threads are an example of a yarn that is specifically engineered for a specific purpose. Additional finishes are often added to yarns to ensure they are fit for purpose.

      FIGURE 1.3   Types of yarn: (a) monofilament; (b) multifilament; (c) staple/spun.

      Yarn fineness, thickness or size is characterised by two main types of numbering systems:

      • Direct yarn numbering system: Based on weight or mass of a fixed length of yarn (mass per unit length).

      • Indirect yarn numbering system: Based on the length of yarn of a fixed weight (length per unit mass).

      Both systems provide a measure of the fineness (or thickness) of the yarn, which is important for its appropriate application in fabric construction techniques such as knitting and weaving.

      Once yarns are processed, they then need to be assembled in some way to produce a fabric. A fabric is defined as ‘a manufactured assembly of fibres and/or yarns that has substantial surface area in relation to its thickness, and sufficient cohesion to give the assembly useful mechanical strength’ (Anonymous, 2002). There are many ways of combining yarns to create a fabric. Some of the most important are:

      • Weaving (discussed in Chapter 11)

      • Knitting (discussed in Chapter 12)

      • Nonwoven fabric production (discussed in Chapter 13)

      Some more specialised fabric types include lace, nets, braids and felts.

      The different ways of constructing fabrics result in wide variations in texture, appearance, drape (the way a fabric hangs) and hand/handle (the feel of a fabric); as well as performance characteristics such as strength, durability (Schwartz, 2008), comfort and protection. The combination of different fibre types and yarn and fabric structures results in a huge range of products, with widely differing properties (Briggs-Goode, 2011). Weaving is discussed in more depth in various texts, such as Behera and Hari (2010) and Gandhi (2012), Cohen and Johnson (2010) and O’Mahoney (2011); knitting is reviewed in Au (2011) and Spencer (2001); whilst nonwoven production is covered in various texts such as Russell (2006) and Chapman (2010). The use of finishing techniques for fabric allows further refinement of these properties (Fan & Hunter, 2009; Gulrajani, 2013; Rouette, 2001; Wei, 2009). Finishing techniques are discussed in Chapters 17–19. Both fashion and textile designers will exploit the inherent properties and performance characteristics of different types of fabrics when designing and making products.

      1.4. Fibre Properties

      Fibres have a wide range of physical, mechanical and chemical properties (Howes and Laughlin, 2012). Physical and mechanical properties include:

      • Length, shape and diameter (fineness)

      • Colour and lustre

      • Strength and flexibility

      • Abrasion resistance

      • Handle (or feel), e.g. soft (cashmere), harsh (coir), crisp (linen), elastic (Lycra)

      • Moisture absorbency

      • Electrical properties

      FIGURE 1.4   Key fibre properties. Source: El Mogahzy (2009).

      • Important chemical properties, including fire resistance

      • Chemical reactivity and resistance (e.g. resistance to acids, alkalis, solvents, light, etc.)

      • Antimicrobial properties

      These are discussed in the following sections. Figure 1.4 suggests a way of categorising fibre properties related to performance (El Mogahzy, 2009).

      1.5. Fibre Length, Shape and Diameter

      This chapter has already discussed the length of different fibre types. Fibre length affects many of the properties of a staple yarn, including strength, evenness and hairiness. Because they are continuous, filament yarns can be made into yarn with little or no twist, producing a smooth, bright appearance, particularly when no crimp (see below) is present. Staple fibres need to be twisted together to form a length of yarn with fibre ends protruding from the surface of the yarn. This produces a duller appearance and more uneven texture. This can be an advantage since it gives some fabrics a softer ‘hand’ or feel (Behery, 2005).

      A characteristic feature of some fibres is ‘crimp’, which refers to the waviness of a fibre along its length. The only natural fibres that have significant crimp are animal fibres (wool and hairs). Crimp is often imparted to synthetic filament fibres, in order to make them more bulky and comfortable, and to man-made staple fibres for blending with wool or cotton and to facilitate processing. Crimp can be measured by counting the number of crimps or waves per unit length or the percentage increase in fibre length on removal of the crimp. Crimped fibres tend to be more bulky and cohere (cling) together more effectively when being spun into staple fibre yarn. Fibre ‘cohesiveness’ is an important factor in the successful spinning of staple fibres, and can produce stronger yarns. Crimped fibres, such as wool, have more bulk and better insulating properties, the latter being due to more entrapped air.

      Natural fibres come in a range of shapes, whilst synthetic fibres can be manufactured in almost any shape required. Fibre shape can essentially be analysed in two ways:

      • By looking at the cross-section of a fibre (i.e. cross-sectionally)

      • By looking at the fibre lengthways (i.e. longitudinally)

      Some common types of fibre cross-section are:

      • Round

      • Dog-bone shaped

      • Trilobal

      • Multilobal

      • Serrated

      • Hollow

      Some common types of cross-section are illustrated in Figure 1.5. Amongst natural fibres, cotton fibres have a characteristic dog-bone (bean or kidney) shape, whilst silk fibres have a more rounded, trilobal shape. Whilst there is greater flexibility in selecting and producing a particular cross-section for synthetic fibres, some tend to have the same basic shape (mostly round or serrated).

      Looking at fibres longitudinally, some have a smooth surface whilst others are rough and uneven. Wool fibres have scales similar to human hair, whilst cotton fibres have a characteristic twist. The shape and surface characteristics of a fibre can have an important effect on properties such as cohesion, wetting, wicking, how easily fibres can be cleaned, as well as fabric cover (discussed below) and lustre.

      Synthetic filament yarns can be texturised (textured) to alter their surface and other properties. The purpose of texturising is to increase the bulkiness of the yarns and the comfort of the fabrics. Textured yarns can be knitted or woven into fabrics that have the appearance, drape and almost the handle of wool, cotton or silk fabrics, whilst retaining the synthetic fabrics advantages of better washability, ease of care and lower cost compared to natural fibre fabrics.

      An important property of a fabric is ‘cover’, which describes the degree to which the yarn and fibres cover the space or area occupied by the fabric. The more open the fabric, with more open spaces or gaps, the lower the cover. Good cover in a fabric is important because it determines certain comfort-related and other properties such as degree of protection and transparency. The ‘cover factor’ of a woven fabric is a number indicating the area covered by the fibres and yarns in the fabric, relative to that covered by the fabric.

      The diameter of a fibre is the distance across its cross-section. Because they are irregular, the diameter of natural fibres usually varies over their length, so an average is used. Fibre diameter is usually measured in millionths of a metre, known as ‘microns’ or ‘micrometres’ (using the symbol μm). Typical textile fibres have a diameter of between 10 and 20  μm, though some can reach 50  μm. Natural fibres range in diameter from silk (10–13  μm) to wool (up to 40  μm). Synthetic fibres can be manufactured in diameters from as small as 6  μm (known as microfibers) up to heavy-duty carpet fibres (over 40  μm). Nanofibres, with a diameter below 100  nm (nanometres), are also produced (Houck, 2009). A small diameter produces ‘finer’ fibres with a greater pliability, flexibility and softness. This results in a fabric with better or softer hand (i.e. feel) and drape (the way a fabric hangs). The fineness of fibres is discussed in more detail below. Apparel is typically manufactured from small-diameter fibres, whereas larger-diameter fibres are often used for heavy-duty applications such as carpets.

      FIGURE 1.5   Fibre shapes.

      1.6. Fibre Colour and Lustre

      The colours of natural fibres vary. Wool fibres can, for example, vary in colour from black to white, usually being creamish in colour. Filaments are usually white when manufactured but can be coloured to almost any colour, either prior to manufacturing or subsequently. When synthetic fibres are mass dyed (also called dope dyeing, mass-pigmentation or mass-colouring), the colouring matter is incorporated in the polymer before the filaments are formed (i.e. extruded). The colour and surface characteristics of different fibres have a major effect on fabric appearance, including lustre (the amount and nature of light reflected by a fibre, yarn or fabric). A smooth surface and more regular cross-sectional shape (e.g. the smooth, trilobal shape of silk fibres) will reflect light more strongly and evenly, creating a high lustre. A fibre like cotton, with a rough surface and irregular, twisted cross-sectional shape, has a lower lustre. As well as reflecting light more strongly, smooth, round fibres tend to show soiling more easily than, e.g. multilobal fibres, which are preferred for products such as carpets where dirt and wear may be a significant problem.

      Another method of colouring fibres is to dye them in fibre form, before they are spun into yarns. This is called stock dyeing, and is to all intents and purposes confined to wool and hair fibres. Stock dyeing permits the mixing of differently coloured fibres before spinning, and this in turn permits the production of yarns containing several intimately mixed colours. This enables designers to achieve colour effects that cannot be obtained in any other way. Harris tweeds are an example of these colour effects. Dyeing can also be carried out in yarn, garment or fabric form, the latter being the most common.

      1.7. Fibre Fineness

      In textiles, fineness refers to the thinness of the fibre. Thinner fibres have greater surface-to-weight ratios and are more flexible, giving a softer drape (flexibility) and handle than thicker fibres. Generally speaking, the thinner the fibre, yarn or fabric, the better its quality and the higher its price. Fineness is measured in textiles in several ways, depending, for example, on whether it is in fibre, yarn or fabric form.

      1.7.1. Fibres

      There are two usual ways of measuring the fineness of textile fibres. The one usually used for wool and animal hairs is to measure the diameters of a sample of the fibres and express the result as the average of these diameters. The most usual unit used, bearing in mind the smallness of these diameters, is the micron (μm), which is one millionth of a metre. As an example, fine Merino wool would have a diameter of between 18 and 20  μm.

      The second common way of expressing the fineness of textile fibres, which applies particularly to filaments such as silk and certain synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon, is in

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