Fusion Technology 1990

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INVITED PAPERS

Outline

Chapter 1: Status and prospects of the European Fusion Programme

Chapter 2: The JT-60 machine upgrade and development towards the Next Step in Japan

Chapter 3: Ignition with high-field, compact tokamaks

Chapter 4: Safety and environmental issues of fusion

Chapter 5: The management of fusion waste

Chapter 6: Critical safety issues in the design of fusion machines

Chapter 7: Is the public’s faith in fusion justified?

Chapter 8: The physics of an ignited tokamak

Chapter 9: Pumped divertors and limiters for tokamaks

Chapter 10: Radio Frequency heating and current drive – Status and prospects for the Next Step

Chapter 11: Neutral beam heating and current drive systems

Chapter 12: Recent developments in superconducting conductors

Chapter 13: Fusion materials research: problems – recent developments – present trends

Chapter 14: Recent developments from the European Tritium Handling Programme

Chapter 15: Future prospects for JET and Next Step tokamaks

Chapter 16: Overview and critical issues for the NET/ITER projects

Status and prospects of the European Fusion Programme

Ch. Maisonnier,     Director of the Fusion Programme, Commission of the European Communities, Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium

Submitted 3 September 1990; accepted 29 November 1990 Handling Editor: P. Komarek

Fusion has the potential to become one of the long term options for the supply of electrical energy with a moderate impact on the environment. This is particularly important for Europe because of our comparatively scarce natural resources, our high population density, and our dependence on large-scale industrial production.The European approach to the development of fusion is by toroidal magnetic confinement: Tokamaks as the main line, and Stellarators and Reversed Field Pinches as alternatives. The results achieved in the Joint European Torus (JET) and other European Tokamaks have put Europe in the frontline of worldwide fusion research. The plasmas produced in JET are now less than a factor 2 from break-even and only 7 from ignition. Promising steps towards controlling the impurities have been made.In parallel to the efforts in plasma physics, the NET (Next European Torus)-team and a substantial technology programme are now in place. This will prepare the ground for the Next Step device, conceived as an experimental Tokamak test reactor. The programme includes plasma facing components, superconducting magnets, the fuel system, remote handling equipment, nuclear components such as the shielding blanket, completion of the data base on structural and insulating materials, and the assessment of the safety and environmental impact of the Next Step. In addition, R&D on the breeding blanket and on advanced materials are targeting the demonstration power reactor.The workplan for the next five years will take in due consideration the recommendations of the Fusion Review Board which has just completed an assessment of the European Fusion Programme. This workplan is likely to include a major effort to control plasma purity in an extended operational period of JET; expanding the physics and technology effort towards the Next Step; initiating the engineering design of the Next Step; pursuing investigation of the reactor potential of alternative lines; strengthening the long-term research in materials and other areas affecting the environmental, safety related and economic potential of fusion; undertaking conceptual design studies of a commercial reactor.Based on the very positive experience in international cooperation, particularly with the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Japan and Canada, there are good prospects for the Engineering Design of the Next Step to be undertaken in the frame of an International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER).

1 Long-term objective of the Programme

By decision of the Council of Ministers of the European Communities the ‘Community Fusion Programme is a long-term cooperative project embracing all the work carried out in the Member States (plus Sweden and Switzerland) in the field of controlled thermonuclear fusion. It is design to lead in due course to the joint construction of prototype reactors’.

2 Medium term objectives

The main medium term objective of the Programme is a Next Step Tokamak which, firstly, should complete the demonstration of the scientific feasibility of fusion by achieving both ignition and the control of a burning D–T plasma during long pulses in reactor-relevant conditions and, secondly, should address substantial technological issues of reactor relevance. The Next Step should be designed and constructed as soon as technically possible, preferably in an international framework (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, ITER), or alternatively in a European frame (Next European Torus, NET).

Other objectives are to develop the environmental, safety-related and economic potential of fusion power, to continue investigating the reactor potential of Stellarators and Reversed Field Pinches, to maintain a ‘keep-in-touch’ activity in inertial confinement, to expand the involvement of European industry, and to extend the scope of international collaboration.

3 Achievements and future planning

The performance of Tokamaks in the European Community (EC), Japan, the United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) are illustrated in fig. 1. The product of the ion density, energy confinement time and ion temperature, called fusion product, is a figure of merit; its dependence on plasma temperature allows a comparison of the achievements with reactor requirements. As shown in this figure the Joint European Torus (JET) which is the European Community’s most important fusion device and the world’s largest tokamak has reached excellent results. First plasma was obtained in 1983 in JET, now up to 35 MW of additional heating power are applied at plasma currents up to 7 MA, and long pulses of up to 30 s were obtained at plasma currents of about 3 MA. Best plasma performances today give plasma temperatures of up to 25 keV and fusion products of about 9 × 10²⁰ m−3 keV s, that is only less than a factor of 2 from break-even and about a factor of 7 short of ignition. To fully exploit the JET device an upgrading is foreseen where the heating power will reach about 50 MW, and a pumped divertor is proposed to be installed. D–T operation is planned for the last two years of JET operation in 1995–96.

Fig. 1 Tokamak performances.

Figure 2 indicates the planned modifications and the working programme to be implemented in the new phase of JET. Of particular importance will be the optimisation in X-point configuration and Next Step oriented studies with a pumped divertor and the tritium operation.

Fig. 2 JET Programme in the new phase.

The European Fusion Programme possesses also a unique ensemble of specialised Tokamaks whose main objectives and characteristics are listed in table 1.

Table 1

Specialized tokamaks in Europe

With regard to alternative lines, several devices are under construction or in operation: the modular Stellarator WENDELSTEIN VII-AS has started operation, the Reversed Field Pinch RFX, presently under construction, will become operational in 1991, and the construction of the flexible heliac device TJ-II is starting. A large modular advanced Stellarator, WENDELSTEIN VII-X, is in the pre-design phase.

The Fusion Technology effort is directed towards three main issues: (a) the Next Step Technology, being understood that the Next Step shall adopt those reactor technologies which have reached an advanced stage of development; (b) the Blanket Technology, as one of the objectives of the Next Step is to test components, such as blanket modules in reactor-like conditions; and (c) the Long-Term Technology, addressing materials R&D and strategic issues.

As regards the Next Step, the Community Programme is expected to provide by 1996 the scientific database necessary to start the construction of a Next Step based on the technological solutions available by that time in the areas of plasma facing components, superconducting magnets, fuel cycle (tritium), remote handling, shielding, and safety and environment. Long burn pulses (~ 700 s) as envisaged for the Next Step are feasible in reactor-relevant conditions by means of inductive current drive only. Considering a tritium consumption of about 7 grams/hour an integrated burn time of a few thousand hours appears to be conceivable without breeding blanket.

A comparison between the purely European Next Step NET and the quadripartite (Euratom, Japan, USA, USSR) Next Step ITER is given in table 2. The main differences between NET and ITER are related to non-inductive current drive and the breeding blanket. Non-inductive current drive is extensively investigated within the Programme of the European Community, however might not be sufficiently developed in time for the Next Step. ITER relies on current drive, whilst in NET it is only an option. One should note also that the ‘low-temperature’ breeding blanket as presently foreseen in ITER is not reactor-relevant. NET is conceived without such a blanket; tritium would then have to be produced from external sources. During the reassessment of the ITER objectives at the end of the Conceptual Design Activities, these two issues will deserve special attention.

Table 2

Comparison between NET and ITER

A possible ITER time schedule is outlined in fig. 3. The Conceptual Design Activities could be followed by Engineering Design Activities (EDA) lasting about 6 to 7 years and a construction phase of about 8 years, so that ITER could be operational in about 2005. Figure 4 gives a more detailed European view on a possible Next Step time schedule, illustrating the critical path and the project milestones during the Engineering Design Activities.

Fig. 3 Possible ITER time schedule.

Fig. 4 The European view on a possible Next Step time schedule.

Figure 5 summarizes the major facilities planning of the Community Fusion Programme on the road towards the ultimate aim: the prototype commercial reactor. In addition to JET, the specialised devices in operation or in construction, the Next Step and the Demonstration Reactor (DEMO), a Materials Test Facility (centered around a highfluence 14 MeV neutrons source) and a Decommissioning Facility are under consideration.

Fig. 5 Major facilities planning of the Community Fusion Programme.

4 Evaluation of the Fusion Programme

In January 1990 a Fusion Programme Evaluation Board was set up by the Commission of the European Communities in order to conduct an independent evaluation of the Community’s Fusion Programme, to appraise the environmental, safety-related and economic potential of fusion as an energy source, in particular for the Community, to analyse strategic options for the Community Fusion Programme, and to formulate recommendations on future strategy and on the necessary means for its implementation. The Board which consisted of nine members was chaired by Prof. U. Colombo. Its report has been transmitted in August to the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament.

The following is a synopsis of the Boards’s recommendations:

– Fusion can become a reality at a time in the future when the combination of the problem of energy supply and the need to preserve the quality of the environment and global climate mean that it is one of the few remaining practicable options. The European Community should retain fusion as high priority in its R&D strategies.

– The declared ultimate objective of the Community Fusion Programme – the creation of safe, environmentally sound and commercially viable industrial reactors – appears to be realistic. A stepwise strategy towards the prototype reactor should include, after JET, an experimental reactor (Next Step) and a demonstration reactor (DEMO).

– The Associations will remain important, but the balance of their activities should change in the context of the evolving profile of the Fusion Programme.

– A great part of Europe’s present leadership is due to the outstanding success of JET. The life of JET should be extended to 1996, with tritium operation in the last two years.

– There is now need for a Next Step machine which should reach ignition and sustain it for long burn times. Europe must express its full commitment to the ITER concept, together with a preference for a widely based ITER Programme (including ITER as well as several complementary facilities, such as a highfluence neutrons source for material testing) rather than an agreement merely for a single device.

– Europe has a good claim for assignation of the ITER Engineering Design Activities. Europe must advance its candidacy for the site of the ITER Engineering Design Activities.

– Europe should retain the capability to proceed with NET, if the ITER initiative proves too difficult to continue.

– It is essential to expand the effort on technology, not only for the Next Step, but also on longer term issues, particularly in relation to the new emphasis on environmental and economic constraints. Environment and safety must assume high priority in the European Fusion Programme and in its wider international extension.

– A watching brief on inertial confinement fusion should be maintained in Europe.

– As the scale and scope of the Fusion Programme evolve, and the industrial implications of research become more significant, the organisation and management of the European Fusion Programme should also evolve to achieve a flexible, focused and effective structure.

– The annual budget of the European Fusion Programme has settled since the late 1980s at about 450 MioECU. The budget of the European Fusion Programme does not need substantial increase until the start of the construction of the Next Step machine after 1996.

– A further Evaluation Board should be set up to report in 1995 before taking a firm decision on construction of the Next Step.

5 Future orientations

As in the past, all future developments will be integrated into a single European Programme; JET should be extended; the role of the Associations will remain important; the involvement of industry should increase. Thorough streamlining of our activities will be required in order to make substantial progress towards ITER and the long-term studies. No substantial increases in the budget are expected in the next few years. Environmental and safety criteria should be considered as essential elements in governing the evolution of the Programme.

There are three major forthcoming decisions to be taken: first, to prolong JET beyond its presently foreseen life ending in December 1992 for four years in order to provide important scientific and technical information necessary to complete the design of the Next Step; second, to start the detailed design of the Next Step, preferably in international partnership (ITER) but with the fall-back capability to continue alone (NET), and to strengthen the supporting R&D; and third, to expand the effort on longer term issues, such as conceptual design studies of commercial reactors and materials development, with particular emphasis on environmental and economic constraints.

The present multiannual Fusion Programme extends up to March 1992. A new Programme Proposal, covering the period up to December 1994, is in preparation on the basis of the recommendations of the Fusion Programme Evaluation Board.

The JT-60 machine upgrade and development towards the Next Step in Japan

H. Shirakata,     Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Naka Fusion Research Establishment, Naka-machi, Naka-gun, Ibaraki-ken, 311-01, Japan

Submitted 3 September 1990; accepted 6 December 1990 Handling Editor: P. Komarek

This paper describes an overview of three major magnetic fusion programmes in Japan.The first is the JT-60 machine upgrade (JT-60U) programme at Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI). The large tokamak JT-60 is being modified in order to improve the plasma performance. The vacuum vessel and the poloidal field coils are replaced for large D-shape plasma productions. The main machine parameters of JT-60 upgrade are plasma current of 6 MA, plasma volume of 100 m³.The second is the next step programme at JAERI. Design studies are being conducted of the Fusion Experimental Reactor (FER) as a domestic plan and of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) under the IAEA. The FER is a DT burning tokamak machine with a fusion power of approximately 400 MW and a 4.7-m major radius. This machine is to achieve adequate plasmas and reactor technologies prior to a Demo reactor. In parallel with the design studies, R&D works such as superconducting coils, negative ion beam and plasma facing component have been carried out.The third is the Large Helical Device (LHD) programme at National Institute for Fusion Science. The LHD programme is a major fusion programme of joint universities in Japan belonging to Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. This is the 7 years’ programme, and the LHD is a Heliotron/Torsatron type helical device (R = 4 m, B = 4 T) which contains 2 GJ superconducting helical coils.

1 Introduction

Japan, which is not blessed with energy resources, has been eagerly pursued the research and development (R&D) on nuclear fusion.

Broad R&D activities on nuclear fusion have been carried out at the universities, national laboratories and related institutes in Japan [1,2]. These R&D activities are mainly supported by three government organization: the Science and Technology Agency (STA), the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (MOE) and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). The national nuclear fusion programme has been coordinated by the Nuclear Fusion Council under the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) of Japan.

At present, three major magnetic fusion R&D programmes are actively proceeding in Japan. The first is the large tokamak JT-60 machine upgrade (JT-60U) programme at Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) under the STA. The second is the next step tokamak programme at JAERI. The third is the Large Helical Device (LHD) programme at National Institute for Fusion Science (NIFS) under the MOE.

This paper is concentrated on technological aspects of recent progress in the above three programmes, because an overview of the Japanese fusion programme is already reported in ref. [1].

2 JT-60 upgrade programme

2.1 Objective

JT-60 was designed with a maximum plasma current of 2.7 MA with hydrogen discharge, and mainly performed experiments of confinement and current drive from April 1985 to October 1989. The major results obtained at this phase were, (1) fusion product ne(0)τeTi(0) of 1.2 × 10²⁰ m−3 s keV, (2) lower hybrid driven current of up to 2 MA with a maximum efficiency of 3.4 × 10¹⁹ m−2 AW. In order to further improve the plasma performance, upgrade of JT-60 (JT-60U) was planned [3,4] in the light of the recent experimental result that both energy confinement and beta value improve with an increase of the plasma current. The objectives of this upgrade is to obtain a physical and engineering database for the design of the next-step tokamak with a minimum modification of the original JT-60 facilities. The modification plan consists of (1) double the plasma current, (2) produce lower single null diverted plasma, and (3) serve as large as possible viewing ports for better access of heating, current drive and diagnostics.

2.2 JT-60U device

2.2.1 Outline

In the modification, the original poloidal field (PF) coil system and vacuum vessel are exchanged for new ones with large D-shaped cross sections, which allow a plasma current of up to 6 MA, a plasma volume of up to 100 m³ and plasma elongation of 1.4 to 1.8 with single null divertor configuration. Main parameters are shown in table 1. The existing toroidal field (TF) coils and their support fixtures will be used after reinforcement. The existing high power heating system and the power supply system will also be used after minor modification. Neutron shields for deuterium operation are being prepared. Fig. 1 gives a cross sectional view of JT-60U.

Table 1

Main parameters of JT-60U

Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of JT-60U.

2.2.2 Vacuum vessel

The thickness of the vessel and the armor tile must be reduced as thin as possible to obtain plasma as large as possible within the given bore of the existing TF coil. On the other hand, the integrated forces in the vertical and horizontal directions due to disruption are estimated and found to be 10 MN and 20 MN, respectively. Therefore, the new vacuum vessel must have sufficient strength against these electromagnetic forces. A continuous chamber with so called double-skin structure is adopted to obtain a large vacuum vessel with sufficient strength [5].

A schematic picture of the vessel structure is shown in Fig. 2. The double-skin structure consists of 6.1 mm thick inner and outer skins of Inconel 625 and poloidally-oriented square pipes with 3 mm in thickness. The vessel is supported by 36 support rods at the inner and outer midplane from the PF coil support structure as shown in Fig. 2. The vacuum vessel is cooled and baked with nitrogen gas circulation through channels between the skins and pipes. The vessel can be baked out up to 300°C.

Fig. 2 Schematic picture of the vacuum vessel.

Neutral beam input power of JT-60U is 40 MW, which is the largest in the present tokamaks. Thus, a carbon-fiber composite (C/C) with thermal conductivity of up to 300 W/m°C is used for the divertor plates. Water cooling pipes are introduced into the vacuum vessel for the heat removal of the divertor plates. The surface of the vacuum vessel except divertor plates are covered with graphite tiles to withstand the heat flux of up to 3 MW/m². These graphite tiles are inertially cooled and the heat is removed through the cooling channel of the vacuum vessel between shots.

2.2.3 Poloidal field coil

The PF coil system consists of an ohmic heating coil (F),a vertical field coil (V), a horizontal field coil (H), a divertor coil (D) and a sector coil (DCW). These coils are designed to produce 3 types of divertor configurations to study the dependence of diverted plasma confinement on the aspect ratio and elongation. The V-coil is divided into 4 blocks and the plasma configuration can be selected by the tap change in the coil feeder. To increase the shell effect and to obtain stable discharges with high elongation, conductors of the H-coil are distributed around the vacuum vessel. The lengths of the plasma current flat top at 6 MA divertor and at 6.5 MA limiter discharges are expected both three seconds, when times of ramp-up and ramp-down of discharges are 8 s and 4 s, respectively.

Return conductors of the V-coil was eliminated and the V-coil is designed to have a flux swing capacity of 19 V · s. On the other hand, the capacity of the F-coil is increased up to 42 V · s by increasing its current rating from 92 kA to 120 kA. The resultant capacity of 61 V · s is 2.4 times as large as that of the original JT-60, while the total ampere turn increases by 15%.

2.2.4 Toroidal field coil

The TF coils are excited by all the same power supplies as before, so the length of the toroidal field flat top at 4.2 T is 10 s. On the other hand, the poloidal field produced by the PF coils and the plasma cause a significant overturning moment on the TF coils. The TF coils are originally designed to withstand this overturning force of 450 tons. With the new PF coil system and the new plasma configuration, a overturning force of up to 600 tons is anticipated. Since the primary stress of up to 800 MPa is generated at the coil case in the new operation conditions, reinforcement is necessary for the TF coils and their support fixtures. In order to increase the strength of the inboard side, neighboring two coils are welded together at the inboard side of the coil case. The upper support structure is also reinforced to increase the stiffness and to decrease the displacement of the coils as shown in Fig. 3. The reinforcement reduces the stress to 470 MPa [6].

Fig. 3 Reinforcement for toroidal field coil.

2.2.5 Control and power supply

The H-coil power supply is modified to a new thyristor converter with the continuous rating of 33 kA and the impulse rating of 90 kA to withstand the large induced current. A new external coil is also inserted into D-coil circuit in order to withstand the induced current during a disruption.

The growth rate of 40 s−1 as the vertically positional instability is anticipated at the most elongated configuration. The rate increases as smaller plasma and higher βp. In order to suppress the instabilities, the feedback control system of H-coil power supply is modified so as to shorten the cycle time of feedback control calculation to 0.25–0.5 ms from 1 ms by adopting new high-speed microcomputer [7]. In addition, a 24 phase converter is adopted in H-coil power supply to increase the vertical position controllability as fast as possible.

2.3 Schedule

JT-60U is now under construction and is expected to begin the operation in the spring 1991. The tokamak is planned to operate with hydrogen at first, probably up to 4 MA, then change to deuterium and to continue the operation during two or three years. In this phase, efforts will be addressed to confinement study and control of non-circular plasma by using the original JT-60 heating systems. Meanwhile, a new heating system such as negative ion based NBI will be designed and installed on 1994. This system is planned to be used in studies of beam current drive and energetic particle confinement.

3 The Next Step Programme and related technologies at JAERI

3.1 Introduction

The Nuclear Fusion Council under AEC of Japan recommended in the National Research and Development Programme in 1987, that the next step fusion device should have a mission of achieving a long ignited and controlled DT burn, and of demonstrating the basic reactor engineering technology.

In 1987, the design study of Fusion Experimental Reactor (FER) with above mission was conducted. Because the joint work of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) has begun on May, 1988, a new organization (Fusion Experimental Reactor Team) was established to implement the ITER activities and also to design FER. The FER which is more compact than the ITER, had been defined as the engineering-oriented machine for demonstrating the engineering feasibility of a fusion reactor [8,9,10]. The design guideline of the FER has been re-established slightly after the launch of the ITER in 1988. The FER is directed to be the minimum-sized domestic machine with smaller extrapolation in technology from the present level while the ITER aims at the higher plasma performance with the larger extrapolation in the technology.

Since Feb. 1990 the status of nuclear fusion R&D including ITER/FER design activities has been reviewed by the Technical Review Subcommittee of Fusion R&D under the Nuclear Fusion Council under AEC of Japan. Its interim report states: Firstly, Japan has gained scientific and technological basis enough to launch the next-step nuclear fusion R&D programme. This conclusion is based on the achievements of fusion R&D in Japan and other advanced countries, and on the progress of international cooperation and cooperation between JAERI and universities. Secondly, both ITER and FER will be able to carry out the mission of the fusion experimental reactor, with physics R&D and technology R&D required for these machines carried out appropriately.

3.2 Design studies

The primary purpose of the ITER is to develop an experimental fusion reactor through the united efforts of many technologically advanced countries. Since beginning of the present Conceptual Design Phase, major efforts have been devoted to ITER by and through the Fusion Experimental Reactor Team centered at JAERI. Contributions to the design work, and to the ITER related R&D works, have also been made from industries and universities widely in Japan.

Skipping technical descriptions on the ITER, since they will be presented in many other papers, the latter half of this chapter is oriented to the FER. The schematic view of the FER is shown in Fig. 4. In the FER design, particular efforts in selecting the plasma parameter have been made to realize the mission with minimum device size. The plasma and device parameters listed in table 2 enable us to obtain the following performances. The fusion multiplication factor Q = 5–10 is a basic plasma performance with the enhancement factor of 1.5–2.0 for both Shimomura-Odajima(SO) and Goldston(G) L-mode energy confinement scaling laws. The burn time more than 1000 s is to be achieved by introducing hybrid operation mode in which some fraction of the plasma current is driven inductively with significant assistance of the non-inductive and the bootstrap current. Demonstration of a steady state operation is one of the key issues for DEMO reactor. A 0.5–1.0 MeV negative-ion-based injection system is used for both heating and current drive. The maximum neutron wall load of the FER is 1 MW/m² with 1000 s burn which seems satisfactory to extrapolate the DEMO reactor nuclear condition. The fluence of 0.2 MWa/m² is quite adequate to carry out the integrated nuclear test of the blanket except the irradiation test of the first wall material. The material irradiation tests, however, can be conducted by the intensive neutron source with small specimens.

Table 2

Major parameters of FER and ITER

Fig. 4 Schematic view of Fusion Experimental Reactor (FER).

3.3 Topics of fusion technologies

A wide range of R&D is inevitably required to bridge from the present technology to the realization of the next step machine. A lot of key technologies are being developed by accumulating the activities of JAERI under good collaboration with industries. In this paper some of the R&D activities and recent results are introduced.

3.3.1 Reactor structure and remote maintenance

One of the recent topics of the R&D relevant to the basic reactor engineering is a trial fabrication and testing of a 1/5 scale model of the divertor maintenance system [11]. The system is to replace the divertor plate by the rail mounted vehicle as shown in Fig. 5. The rail runs in the toroidal direction to form a semicircle beam inside the vessel. The system is fairly compact and expected to handle the divertor module with small deflection of the arm. The 1/5 scale model was manufactured successfully and showed the expected performance.

Fig. 5 1/5 scale model of the divertor maintenance system composed of the toroidal rail and the vehicle.

3.3.2 Plasma heating system

A high energy NBI system which can deliver a 1 MeV class neutral deuterium beam is considered to be the primary heating and current drive system for the next fusion machine, and expected to play an important role to obtain a steady state burning plasma. With respect to a high current negative ion source which is one of the most important R&D items to realize this NBI system, a 10 A, 50 keV negative hydrogen ion beam has been produced successfully using a cesium- seeded plasma volume type ion source [12]. The negative ion beam current and the current density correspond already to the values required for the NBI system. The present status of the negative ion beam power obtained at JAERI is shown in Fig. 6 together with the future plan.

Fig. 6 Present status of the negative ion source development at JAERI.

The operation experiences with LHRF of JT-60 for more than 3000 hours indicated that the withstanding voltage of the electron gun has to be increased to attain the more reliable operation of the klystron. The withstanding voltage of the gun was improved from about 84 kV to more than 94 kV. Owing to the improvement, the output power of 1.4 MW for 10 s was accomplished at 2.17 GHz [13]. The results are encouraging to proceed to the LHRF system for ITER/FER.

A high power tetrode developed in U.S.A. for an ICRF system was tested in JAERI under the US-Japan collaboration programme. The output power of 1.7 MW for 5.4 s has been obtained at 131 MHz which is the record data in the frequency range above 100 MHz at the moment.

3.3.3 Plasma facing component

JAERI Electron Beam Irradiation Stand (JEBIS) was constructed in 1988 to facilitate thermomechanical testing of plasma facing components and plasma facing materials. The JEBIS is capable of providing 400 kW electron beam from 1 ms to steady state in a pencil-like sharply focused shape and in a sheet-like defocused shape. Figure 7 shows the view of the JEBIS. In addition to the JEBIS, an existing Particle Beam Engineering Facility (PBEF) has been used to carry out testing of divertor mock-ups. Thermal cycling test were performed in PBEF on divertor samples composed of carbon-copper bonded materials. A 1000 cycle have proved the durability of the samples against a steady state heat flux of 10 MW/m² [14].

Fig. 7 View of the JEBIS for thermomechanical tests of the plasma facing components.

3.3.4 Vacuum technology

After the ceramic turbomolecular pump had been developed [15], the ceramic turboviscous pump has been developed which works in a pressure range of 10−3–10⁵ Pa. The pump features ceramic rotor assembly and completely oil-free driving unit. The rotor assembly is composed of 11 ceramic (Si3N4) disks of 150 mm diameter and a ceramic shaft with gas turbine blades. The pump can transfer gases at a rate of 0.28 m³/min by 25,000 rpm. Figure 8 shows the external view of the turbo-viscous pump (right side) together with the turbomolecular pump for high vacuum (left side). The combination of the two types of ceramic pump covers the pressure range of 10−8–10⁵ Pa with performances against magnetic field, high temperature, radiation and corrosive gases.

Fig. 8 External view of the turbo-viscous pump (right side) and turbomolecular pump (left side).

3.3.5 Superconducting magnet

The objectives of the activities at JAERI are to develop the following FER/ITER superconducting magnet system:

(1) Toroidal coil DC coil Bmax 12 T Height 12–17 m

(2) Outer poloidal coil Pulsed coil Bmax 7 T Diameter 5–20 m

(3) Center solenoid coil Pulsed coil Bmax 13 T Diameter 3–4 m

(4) Refrigeration system Cryogenic power at 4K: 30 kW × 4

For toroidal coils, a 8-T, 5-m height DC coil technology has already been achieved by the Large Coil Task carried out under the auspice of IEA and 12-T, 2-m-diameter DC coil technology by the JAERI Cluster Test Program.

For poloidal coils, JAERI has been carrying out the Demo Poloidal Coil Program, in which two NbTi pulsed coils (DPC-U1 and U2) and Nb3Sn pulsed coil (DPC-EX) each of which has an inner diameter of 1 m have been developed. These coils are cooled by 4-K forced flow helium and have a high insulation capability to withstand the test voltage of 20kV-DC. Fig. 9 shows the external view of the coil system. In December 1989, DPC-EX was successfully charged under the background field of DPC-U1 and U2 up to the coil current of 17 kA and 7 T in one second, generating 20 MJ by the three coils. This charging was carried out by a unit of JT-60 poloidal power supply that can supply 5 kV and 58 kA. Pulsed loss of the DPC-EX was measured to be 0.24% of the stored energy, demonstrating the feasibility of superconducting pulsed coil technology by this world’s first large Nb3Sn pulsed coil [16].

Fig. 9 External view of the Demo Poloidal Coil system.

3.3.6 Fuel cycle and blanket

Basic process related to fusion fuel cycle, such as removal of chemical impurities from reactor exhausts, separation of tritium from hydrogen isotope mixtures etc., have been studied in the Tritium Process Laboratory (TPL) since 1988. Also important in JAERI’s programme for fusion fuel cycle development is the participation in operation of the Tritium Systems Test Assembly (TSTA) at Los Alamos National Laboratory in U.S.A. A new cleanup system provided by JAERI has been installed on TSTA loops.

The test-production of tritium at a level of 100 Ci has been made by irradiating LiAl alloys using Japan Materials Testing Reactor.

Experiments on neutronics using model blanket assemblies are being made on the Fusion Neutronics Source (FNS), which produces 5 × 10¹² neutrons/sec (RTNS-type rotating target). A part of the experiments is done as a joint programme with U.S.A.

3.3.7 Structural and tritium breeding materials

The heavy irradiation test of candidate alloys for fusion had been made using fission reactors of HFIR and ORR in Oak Ridge National Laboratory in U.S.A. [17]. Broad basic studies, on low-induced-activity alloys, etc. are in progress. As for tritium breeding materials, emphasis has been placed on basic studies of Li ceramics, especially in-situ tritium release and irradiation effect. In addition, as the IEA collaboration, a fast neutron irradiation experiment simulating the blanket environment (BEATRIX-11) has been conducted in the FFTF facility at Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory in U.S.A. [18].

4 The Large Helical Device Programme at NIFS

4.1 Introduction

The Large Helical Device (LHD) programme is being pursued at the newly established NIFS as the major joint-university fusion research programme in Japan. The LHD (Fig. 10) is a Heliotron/Torsatron type superconducting toroidal device with B(toroidal magnetic field) = 4 T and R(major radius) = 4 m. The programme was proposed in 1986 and then an intensive design study was carried out for three years by the former Planning Office for NIFS and the Design Team organized by many researchers from universities [19,20]. After a comparative study between superconducting (SC) and normal conducting (NC) devices, the SC design was adopted. In 1989, NIFS was established by MOE and the LHD programme has been conducted by this new institute. The new site (~ 500,000 m²) is in Toki city, Gifu prefecture and the first building for cryogenic research has been completed in autumn of 1990.

Fig. 10 Illustration of the LHD device.

Objective of this programme is to confine high temperature currentless plasmas of several keV and to conduct various physics and engineering research programmes which are necessary for developing steady-state helical fusion reactor. The most important subjects to be pursued are:

(a) To study transport phenomena in a wide range of plasma condition and to confine high nτT plasmas of ∼10²⁰ m−3 s keV.

(b) To achieve high-beta plasmas of 〈β〉 ≥ 5%, and to study the related physics.

(c) To develop technology needed for controlling long-pulse discharge and to demonstrate steady-state operation of high temperature (- keV) plasmas using the helical divertor.

(d) To study behavior of high-energy particles in the helical system and to do alpha-particle simulation experiments.

(e) To increase comprehensive understanding of toroidal plasmas by carrying out studies complementary to those in tokamaks.

The LHD research programme is being conducted in two phases as is shown in table 3.

Table 3

LHD operation program

4.2 Main parameters of LHD device [21]

Main parameters of LHD device are listed in table 4. Its size and magnetic field are almost twice as large as the existing helical devices. The helical coils are made of NbTi and are operated at ∼ 4.2 K for Bt = 3T. The increase of Bt is realized by cooling the conductor down to super-fluid helium temperature (∼1.8 K). Figure 11 shows coil current versus stored magnetic energy of several SC magnets. The LHD helical coils show the largest value of ~ 1.8 GJ at Bt = 4 T. Main components of LHD device are contained in the doughnut-shaped cryostat as is seen in Fig. 10. They are vacuum vessel, helical and poloidal coils, supporting shell for the SC magnets, thermally insulated supports for components at liquid helium temperature, and thermal insulation at liquid nitrogen temperature. The helical coils are continuous type and are manufactured by using winding machines at the LHD experimental hall. This is because the transportation from factories to the institute is difficult. During the construction of LHD, a rather severe accuracy is required for winding and setting of the magnets to avoid magnetic surface destruction (≤ 5 × 10−4). To meet this need, we have adopted the manufacturing process such that the helical coils are completed at first and then the vacuum vessel is made by patch work method from many segments.

Table 4

Main parameters of LHD device (Phase I/Phase II)

Fig. 11 Coil current and magnetic energy of SC magnets. KYOTO-SC, TOKI-HB, -TF, -PF are R&D magnets.

Specific points of the LHD device are as follows:

(a) Helical and poloidal coils are superconducting.

(b) Divertor operation is possible.

(c) Magnetic configuration can be changed flexibly.

The SC helical device equipped with the divertor makes long pulse or steady-state operation possible. Moreover, it has such merits as suppression of X-ray generation during start-up and fall-down phases of the coil currents and possibility of magnetic surface measurements at high field intensity. Divertor operation is considered to be useful not only for density and impurity control but also for getting improved confinement of plasma such as H-mode observed in tokamaks. The point (c) is important to study configuration effects to plasma performance such as MHD stability and particle transport. This is possible in LHD since each helical coil consists of 3 layers and poloidal coils of 3 pairs. By energizing these coils separately, we can control magnetic surface parameters such as size, shape, position of magnetic axis, rotational transform, shear, magnetic well/hill, helical field ripple and leakage flux outside LHD device.

4.3 Schedule and R&D programmes

The seven-year programme to construct LHD device has started at April of 1990. In 1991, we will start manufacturing of the smallest poloidal (IV) coils, lower part of the cryostat, and the winding machines for the SC magnets. After the LHD building is completed in FY1993, the winding will be started there. The LHD is now planned to begin the operation in 1997 and to operate during about three years on Phase I, then the operation of Phase II will be done.

Various R&D programmes are now under way which include SC coils, vacuum vessel, heating and diagnostic facilities. Five SC magnets with various shapes and cooling methods have been made to investigate or develop many items such as cryogenic stability of conductors, propagation of quench, stress and supporting method, thermal insulation and cooling technology, electric insulation, accuracy of magnetic field, winding performance, etc. Coil current and magnetic energy of them are also plotted in Fig. 11.

5 Summary

Much progress has been made in recent years on the Japanese fusion R&D programme. Major activities in the magnetic fusion programme in Japan are summarized as follows:

(1) The modifications to JT-60U have been conducted at JAERI. Experiments on JT-60U will start in spring of 1991.

(2) In the next step programme at JAERL design studies of ITER and FER are being conducted. In parallel with design study, the related R&D works have been carried out.

(3) In the LHD programme at NIFS, design study of LHD and the related R&D works have been conducted. The seven-years’ programme to construct this device has started in April 1990.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Drs. H. Horiike, H. Ninomiya, S. Matsuda, S. Seki, F. Matsuoka and Y. Matsuzaki for their help in preparing this paper. The author would like to express his gratitude to Professor O. Motojima and Professor S. Morimoto of NIFS for their contribution in compiling section 4 of this paper. Finally, the author would like to acknowledgement the continuous encouragement of Drs. Y. Tanaka, T. Iijima and M. Yoshikawa.

References

1. Iijima, T. Progress in the Japanese fusion technology programme. Fusion Engrg. Des.. 1989; 11:35–45.

2. Oikawa, A., et al. Japanese fusion research: Activities in reactor technology – Part I. Fusion Technol.. 1990; 17:232–247.

3. H. Horiike, T. Ando, et al., Present status of JT-60 upgrade, Proc. 13th Symp. on Fusion Engrg., Knoxville, 1989, Vol. 2, 1049–1054.

4. H. Ninomiya, T. Ando, et al., JT-60 upgrade device – for confinement and steady state studies -, Plasma Devices and Operations (to appear).

5. T. Horie, T. Ando, et al., Stress analysis of JT-60U tokamak, Proc. 13th Symp. on Fusion Engrg., Knoxville, 1989, 1355–1358.

6. T. Kushima, T. Ando, et al., Toroidal field coil reinforcement for upgrade of JT-60, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

7. Kimura, T., Kurihara, K., et al. VME multiprocessor system for plasma control at the JT-60 Upgrade. IEEE Trans. on Nucl. Science. 1989; 36:1554–1558.

8. E. Tada et al., The fusion experimental reactor (FER) – Design concept, Proc. 13th Symp. on Fusion Engineering, Knoxville, 1989, 239–242.

9. Fusion Experimental Reactor Team, Overview of FER (Fusion Experimental Reactor), JAERI-M 90–090 (1990).

10. E. Tada et al., Containment structure design and component development for Fusion Experimental Reactor, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

11. K. Shibanuma et al., Remote maintenance system design and component development for Fusion Experimental Reactor, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

12. Y. Okumura et al., A 10 ampere negative ion source for high energy neutral beam injector, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

13. S. Maebara et al., 1.4 MW power test of 2 GHz klystron, JAERI-M 90–132 (1990).

14. M. Araki et al., Recent results of developmental study on plasma facing components at JAERI, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

15. T. Ando et al., Fabrication and test of the Nb3Sn Demo Poloidal Coil, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

16. T. Abe et al., Development of ceramic turbomolecular pump for fusion devices, Vacuum 40 (to appear).

17. A. Rowcliffe et al., Radiation effects at fusion reactor He: dpa Ratios, J. Nucl. Mater. (to appear).

18. R. J. Puigh et al., BEATRIX-II: in situ tritium recovery from a fast neutron irradiation of solid breeder materials. Proc. 15th SOFT (1988), 1282–1286.

19. Motojima, O., et al. Engineering design study of the large super conducting helical device. Fusion Technol.. 1988; 402–406.

20. Yamazaki, K., et al. Comparative design study of super- vs normal-conducting large helical system. Fusion Technol.. 1988; 407–411.

21. S. Morimoto et al., Design study of superconducting large helical device, 16th SOFT, London, September 1990.

Ignition with high-field, compact tokamaks*

John A. Schmidt,     CIT Design Team, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, USA

Submitted 3 September 1990; accepted 5 November 1990 Handling Editor: P. Komarek

Compact, high-field experiments offer the most direct path to study burning plasma behavior. Several designs for these experiments have been proposed. The IGNITOR device has been proposed for construction at Ispra in northern Italy, and the CIT device has been proposed for construction at Princeton, N.J., in the USA. The programmatic role of these experiments is to build significantly on the achievements of JET, TFTR and JT-60, while setting goals that are modest, technically and financially, relative to an experimental test reactor such as ITER.

1 Mission

The mission for compact, high-field experiments must balance competing forces from physics, engineering design, and funding. Different balances have been struck between these forces for the proposed projects. The IGNITOR project chooses to minimize cost by minimizing the physics program and by minimizing operating cycles at full performance. In addition, by maximizing field and plasma current with this minimum size, the IGNITOR [1] is directed toward high fusion gain and ignition, using primarily ohmic heating. The CIT project chooses to provide more space, operating cycles and associated operational flexibility. The managers in the U.S. fusion program have established that the goal of CIT is to determine the physical behavior of self-heated fusion plasmas and demonstrate the production of substantial amounts of fusion power. This goal is further defined by the following objectives:

– Demonstrate the production of fusion power in excess of 100 MW, at power densities typical of a commercial reactor;

– Determine the energy confinement, operational limits, and alpha particle dynamics of self-heated fusion plasmas with alpha power greater than auxiliary heating power;

– Demonstrate the necessary heating, fueling, and plasma handling techniques;

– Optimize performance in the range from Q = 5 to ignition, with fusion power up to 500 MW.

2 Parameters

The primary parameters for the CIT device are as follows:

The plasma discharge has a vertical elongation of 2 and can be operated with a limiter or poloidal divertor. The average divertor power flux is minimized by sweeping the diverted, magnetic flux surfaces across the divertor plate. The tokamak and facilities can accommodate a plasma heating power of up to 50 MW with various combinations of ICH and ECH. The baseline cost estimate includes 20 MW of ICH.

3 Performance

For determining the nominal plasma performance for CIT the following physics assumptions have been chosen as being characteristic of present achievements:

– 1.85 H-mode enhancement over ITER-P L-mode scaling;

– Zeff −1.65;

– square root parabolic density profile;

– trapezoidal temperature profile with a break at a/q95;

– 3% depletion due to helium build up.

Using these assumptions, it is projected that the nominal plasma performance for CIT is a fusion gain (Q) of about 25. This fusion gain is characteristic of the operating point for a fusion reactor using the plasma heating system to control the fusion burn conditions. The projections of CIT performance indicate that there is a high probability of operating in the regime where fusion self-heating dominates (i.e., Q > 5) and that there is a good chance that CIT will ignite for a significant number of pulses.

4 Configuration

The CIT configuration is shown in fig. 1. The tokamak is constructed in six modules, each containing three TF coils and the associated vacuum vessel segment. The PF magnet is topologically external to the TF magnet, except for several low-current coils between the vacuum vessel and TF coil. These internal coils are used for fast position and divertor control. They are contained within each TF coil module and are connected between modules at the outside of the structure.

Fig. 1 support structure.

4.1 Vacuum vessel

The vacuum vessel ranges from 7 to 9 cm in thickness and is constructed of a combination of Inconel 600 and Inconel 625. The high strength Inconel 625 is used in the highly stressed region inboard of the plasma. The lower activation Inconel 600 is used in low stressed outboard regions. The strength requirements for the vessel are driven by the high disruption loads resulting from the large plasma currents. The inboard region of the first wall can be used as a plasma limiter. Limiters are installed on the outboard region of the vessel to protect the ICH antenna. The divertor regions on the top and bottom are covered with pyrolitic graphite tiles, while the rest of the vessel is covered with graphite composite. The vessel can be heated to 330°C, and maintained at this temperature during plasma operation, to reduce impurities and to improve the recovery from disruptions.

4.2 Toroidal field magnet

The TF magnet is constructed from beryllium–copper plates, which are wedged together and uncased in the inboard leg. These plates are joined to copper plates at the top and bottom, which form the outer legs of the magnet. The magnet is precooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures before each pulse and the temperature of the magnet increases adiabatically to room temperature during the pulse. The average membrane stress in the inner leg is maintained below 2/3 of the yield of beryllium copper. The peak stresses in the magnet have a good margin against fatigue failure for the 3000 required pulses.

4.3 Poloidal field magnet

The PF solenoid is constructed of beryllium–copper plates, which are water-jet cut to form a spiral conductor. These conductors are precooled with liquid nitrogen flowing through radial channels. The vertical separating force experienced by the solenoid during part of the operating cycle is reacted by a central set of tie bolts, connected to compression plates on the ends of the solenoid. The large ring coils that provide most of the equilibrium and shaping fields are conventional wound-copper coils.

4.4 Ion cyclotron heating

Ion cyclotron heating (ICH) of a He minority is to be applied at the 20 MW power level, with an upgrade potential of 28 MW total. The rf source employs ten EIMAC 2274 power tetrodes operating in FMIT (Fusion Materials Irradiation Test) systems, modified to provide 2.5 MW at the nominal 85 MHz operating frequency for the peak field of 9 Tesla. The source would operate over the range 65–100 MHz. The tunability of the system allows for operation at reduced field for scaling studies, and for experimental shake-down tests. Operation with H minority and D second harmonic is planned for early trials at 6 T; operation at full field and 130 MHz with this mode will be possible, but at a reduction from the power available at 85 MHz. The ICH is to be transmitted through 5 ports with 4 current-straps per port. The antenna design features a Faraday shield mounted on the vessel with remote maintenance equipment, while the antenna straps are inserted and removed through the port flange and duct.

4.5 Remote maintenance

The project has organized its remote maintenance related activities into two groups. The ex-vessel remote maintenance group is responsible for developing the equipment and tools used in the test cell, the hot cell, and the contact repair cell. The primary test cell equipment includes: a bridge-mounted servomanipulator for operations on top of, and around, the machine cryostat; a floor-based mobile manipulator capable of working under the machine; an overhead crane system with coverage over the entire facility; an assortment of end-effector tools; and various lifting fixtures. The in-vessel remote maintenance group is responsible for developing the articulated boom-manipulator system, the related end-effector tools, and the in-vessel inspection system, for handling in-vessel maintenance activities. These activities include replacing first wall tiles, divertors, certain diagnostics, and Faraday shields. The end-effector tools include leak detection equipment, bolting, cutting and welding equipment, tile and divertor module replacement tools, and tools for handling magnetic diagnostics.

4.6 Power supplies

The total CIT electrical load is roughly 1.7 GW peak and 16 GJ. Present plans call for the utilization of the TFTR power systems (motor-generators and thyristor rectifiers) to supply roughly 0.7 GW and 4.5 GJ for the PF systems, and for the procurement of new equipment for the 1 GW and 11.5 GJ demand of the TF.

The TFTR power supplies are modularized and can be reconfigured with relative ease as required for the CIT PF system. However, additional new components will be required in the DC circuits so as to accomplish the current reversals.

Several strategies are being evaluated for the supply of the TF system. The baseline approach for the supply to the TF system uses a combination of power from the utility network and from motor-generator sets. Alternatives include the use of various mixes of utility, motor-generator, and battery-based power. It is anticipated that the cost of power and energy obtainable from large arrays of batteries, similar to those being developed for electric utility load leveling, may offer the possibility of overall systems cost savings.

4.7 Facilities

The CIT facilities will be constructed next to the TFTR test cell. CIT will utilize many of the TFTR facilities including power supplies and tritium systems.

The test cell configuration provides a center cell to house the CIT, with fixed wall and floor shielding, and a rolling shield roof over the center cell. The shield roof is closed during CIT operation, but can be opened for maintenance. The rolling shield roof over the center cell will protect the high bay area from ionizing radiation and allow manned maintenance of systems located in that space. North and south cells provide space for systems that must be close to the tokamak, but which require protection from ionizing radiation. The Diagnostic Neutral Beam system and the Tritium Fuel Pellet Injection system will occupy the north cell and Diagnostics will occupy the south cell space. The north and south cell areas will have fixed roofs allowing their occupancy during periods when the center cell is open for remote maintenance. A 250-ton overhead bridge crane a an overhead remote manipulator will reside in a high bay space over the test cell, and will service the test and diagnostic cells.

5 Cost and schedule

Full construction authorization for CIT is anticipated in October 1992. This will lead to an expected first plasma date in September 1998, and the start of D–T burning plasma experiments in September, 2001. The D–T burning plasma experiments will follow three years of experiments using hydrogen and deuterium. The estimated total project cost (TPC) to construct CIT is $ 940M in FY-90 $.

References

1. B. Coppi and the Ignitor Program Group, Characteristics and expected performance of the Ignitor-U experiment, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion, Nice, France, November 1988, paper IAEA-CN-50/G2–2, International Atomic Energy Agency.

*Work supported by U.S. DOE Contract DE-AC02-76-CH0-3073.

Safety and environmental issues of fusion

R.S. Pease,     Pease Partner, Consultants, The Poplars, West Ilsley, Newbury, Berkshire RG16