Southern Spain Travel Adventures

Geography

The Iberian Peninsula, of which Spain occupies roughly 85% and Portugal the remainder in the west, protrudes from the far southwestern tip of the Eurasian continent like a dislodged cornerstone. The peninsula has long served as a gateway between its neighboring regions. From the prehistory to the present day, distinct peoples have braved the imposing Pyrenees to cross south from Europe, while others have sailed across the Mediterranean from Africa or beyond to reach the peninsula and European mainland. The sheer, mountainous terrain, coupled with thousands of miles of coastal borders, undoubtedly hindered the steady advances and developments of man across the peninsula through the ages. Spain has been slow to change, but in the recent past has developed into a leading first-world country. If there is one constant through it all, it is that Spain has been a unique middle ground between Europe and Africa.

Highs & Lows

Mountainous regions and highlands predominate over lowlands in Spain. The average altitude is around 650 m (2,100 feet), making Spain the second highest country in Europe behind Switzerland, with the Pico de Teide in Tenerife its highest point at 3,719 m (12,200 feet). This rugged topography has played a major role in isolating Spain and its various inhabitants from the rest of Europe (and itself) through much of its history. In and around the barriers of the five major mountain chains are three lowland areas.

Lowlands: The lowland regions are largely comprised of the Coastal Plains, the Andalucian Plain in the southeast and the Ebro Basin in the northeast. Other minor, low-lying river valleys are located on the Rio Tagus and the Rio Guadiana near Portugal. The Coastal Plains are generally narrow strips running between the coastal mountain ranges and the seas. The Sierra Morena range and Sistema Penibetico range define the Andalucian Plain between them. The Ebro Basin is formed by the Rio Ebro valley and contained by mountains on three sides.

La Meseta: Occupying 40% of the country at its heart, La Meseta is a vast plateau notable for its endless vistas and desolate landscapes. One of the least populated of Spain's regions, it encompasses much of Castilla y Leon, Castilla-LaMancha and Extremadura, as well as the Madrid community. Due to sparse rainfall, much of this land is infertile, although pastures can be found in parts of Extremadura and vineyards farther south. Grains such as wheat are the staple crop here. The Cordillera Central mountain chain runs like a scar across the middle of the Meseta from the Portuguese border to just northeast of Madrid. Erratic mountain outcroppings hem it in on all sides save for the western border with Portugal.

Mountains surrounding La Meseta: Less imposing than the mountains along Spain's outer regions, mountain ranges shelter La Meseta from the perimeter regions of Spain. They generally become increasingly rugged to the south. In the north, the Montes de León and Cordillera Cantabrica cordon off the rich Galician plateau, Asturias and Cantabria. The Sistema Ibérico and Serrania de Cuenca form the eastern edge of La Meseta, while the Sierra Morena delineates the southern edge, encompassing the Montes de Toledo north of it.

Mountains on the periphery of La Meseta: These are the grandest of Spain's mountain ranges, and arguably the best suited for adventure sports. In the far northwest, the long, unbroken Pyrenees Mountains run from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bay of Biscay across Cataluña, Aragón and Navarra. Its six highest peaks reach toward the heavens at over 3,000 m (9,800 feet), with Lardana the tallest at 3,375 m (11,070 feet). The Andalucian range Cordillera Bética runs along the southeast of Spain from its origin in the Mediterranean Balearics. Most noteworthy are the mountains of the Sierra Nevada near Granada, which include Spain's highest mainland peak, the Mulhacén (3,478 m/11,408 feet).

Rivers

"Way off we saw the steep bluffs, dark with trees and jutting with gray stone, that marked the course of the Irati River." Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises

The nine major rivers in Spain drain into the Atlantic and Mediterranean, though even those regarded as main have modest flows owing to the fact that they drain only rainwater. Smaller mountain rivers in the north have shorter courses due to their proximity to the sea and include the Bidasoa, Nervion, Sella, Nalon and Navia. The Duero, Mino, Tajo and Guadiana rivers rise in the Sistema Iberico and cut deep, rocky courses through mountain valleys en route to Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Coursing the south, the Guadalquivir River creates a fertile plain toward the Atlantic. It is the deepest of Spain's rivers and, besides the Ebro in the northeast, the only other intermittently navigable one. The Ebro River is the largest river in volume, rising in the Cordillera Cantabria and ultimately spilling in the Mediterranean to the east, along with the Segura, Jucar and Turia rivers.

Oceans & Coasts

Mountain ranges parallel much of the Spanish coast, creating generally straight coastlines with few inlets. The one exception is Galicia, situated on a plateau in the northwest. Spain has over 2,000 beaches. Many are ideal, though often swamped by British and German tourists during the summer months. There are, however, some spectacular, empty beaches, such as Cabo de Gata on east of Andalucia's Costa del Sol, parts of which are enticingly unreachable by modern transportation, and areas of the Costa de la Luz on the Atlantic. The coastal plains are narrow (rarely wider than 30 km/19 miles), and broken by mountains that descend to the sea. As a result, Spain has few accommodating harbors outside of Cataluña's and those of the Galician Coast.

Atlantic Coast: Along the Atlantic in the northeast of Spain the water is colder and the weather less dependable than that of the Mediterranean. Here you will find the most rustic of Spanish coasts along the Galicia Province and its fjords Rias Bajas and Rias Altas. To the east, along the Bay of Biscay and shadowed by the Cordillera Cantabrica are gentler beaches of the Costa Cantabrica and great surfing opportunities approaching San Sebastián. The Costa de la Luz in the southwest is sheltered by pinewoods, and its beaches stretch west from Gibraltar to the Portuguese border.

Mediterranean Coast: The Mediterranean coastline begins east of the Costa de la Luz in Andalucia and continues all the way up the east coast to France. in the south is the Costa del Sol. Among its attractions are the romantic beach outcroppings of Nerja, the ritzy beach town of Marbella and, of course, the 50-km (31-mile) expanse of the Cabo de Gata, where desert and mountains give way to some of the south's prettiest water. its provinces include Cádiz, Málaga and Granada. The mild climate here produces scant rainfall and a semitropical vegetation of palm-trees, cypresses, oleanders and hibiscus.

Along the southeastern Mediterranean Coast is the Almeria Province and Costa Almeria. it includes long beaches with small coves, desert areas and high mountains with extensive plains. The Costa Calida of Murcia offers the popular, warm waters of the Mar Menor, Aguilas and Mazarron. in many places, the mountains extend right to the sea, strewn with prickly pears, oleander and wild palmetto.

The Costa Blanca, or White Coast, corresponds with Alicante and can be divided into two scenic sections, the jagged, mountainous coastlines of the north, and a vast plain of sand, salt deposits and palm trees in the south. North of here, the Costa del Azahar claims the upper reaches of the Community of Valencia. in contrast to the mountainous terrain of this province, the coastline is an endless swath of greenery and orange plantations.

The Costa Dorada, the Golden Coast, acquired its name because of the intense sun over its fine sandy beaches. Occupying the southern realm of the Cataluña Province, it is famed for its picturesque beaches and stable climate year-round. The Costa Brava in northern Catalonia is the farthest northeastern Spanish coast. Passing by the city of Barcelona, the Costa Brava has rich vegetation merging with the sea and cliffs amid sandy beaches and mild weather good most of the year.

Islands

Once called the Happy islands by the Greeks and Romans, the inviting atmosphere of the Canary islands is a pleasing blend of North African and Western European influences. These islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the west coast of Africa became part of the Spanish kingdom in 1496. The larger islands, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, Lazarote, Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierra, and the smaller islands, Alegranza, Graciosa, Montana Clara, Roque del Este, Roque del Oeste and Lobos,all display radically different characteristics. Surf sports are great in Gran Canaria and Tenerife (where the hiking is out of this world on its lunar-like El Teide National Park). Some historians believe these islands to be remnants of the legendary continent Atlantis. it is proven, though, that Christopher Columbus stopped here en route to discover the New World.

With some 300 sunny days per year, it's little wonder there are more passengers at the airport of Palma de Mallorca than at any other Spanish city. The Balearic islands, islands known alternately for isolated beach coves, party scenes, high prices and prehistoric relics - are located off Spain's east coast in the Mediterranean Sea. They are comprised of Gimnesis (Mallorca, Menorca and Cabrera) in the north, and Pitusas (ibiza and Formentera) to the southwest. The three most popular islands for tourists - Mallorca, Menorca and ibiza - vary greatly from one another in geography and atmosphere. Mallorca has a magnificent coastline consisting of rocky outcroppings and tiny coves offering pristine sand beaches. Menorca's scene is tranquil and less crowded, and Ibiza's is just plain out of control. Formentera and Cabrera remain extremely isolated in contrast.

Environment

Ecology

ECO-TOURISM, n., 1. travel and tourism that aids in the conservation of the environment, indigenous populations, traditions and local economy either through education or action. Syn. GREEN TOURISM, SUSTAINABLE TOURISM.

With the reemergence of democracy beginning in the late 1970s, Spain's awareness and interest in ecological concerns has steadily, if belatedly, increased. While it cannot be said that Spaniards have altogether discontinued their harmful industrial and agricultural practices (dumping waste haphazardly, over-using pesticides and artificial fertilizers and water, deforesting), measures have been enacted to - at least on paper - counter the devastating side-effects of these activities. A skeptic would point out the obvious, that Spain was once a great forest with clean air, inland and coastal waters and a secure wildlife. A leathery mariner from Barcelona once described to me a ferry trip he made from Cádiz to the Canary Islands during the 1950s. As he and his shipmates sat on the deck the first afternoon playing cards, they spotted what they initially thought to be the hull of an upturned ship. Upon closer inspection individual forms began to materialize, each reflecting the sun in silvery bursts like a prism. It was not a ship's hull, they realized, but a sea of dolphins, a pod that numbered three or four hundred. On a recent trip to Morocco, I was delighted to see three dolphins swimming alongside the ferry.

Inland, many of Spain's most indelible species face a far more precarious situation. Still Spain maintains more wild spaces, more mountains and forests, and arguably more bio-diversity than anywhere else in Europe. From the high Pyrenees to desert stretches of the lower Mediterranean to the Ebro Delta, the country is marked with a rich and varied eco-system. The chance to preserve it all has not yet slipped completely out of reach.

Spain's notable absence during the Industrial Revolution may have spared its natural spaces early on, but the same recalcitrance that left it lagging behind much of Western Europe in economic terms has meant that pressing environmental issues took a back seat during its late economic thrust to catch up. Under Franco, Spain experienced its headiest and most telling years of industrialization and development. Through the 20th century an outmoded industrial system that lacked effective regulations for pollution wreaked havoc on the country; while the environmental outlook changed dramatically and negatively during a short period of time, reversing the processes set in motion during Franco's days and in previously industrialized areas is proving to be a much slower, tedious and often ineffective program. Until recently, companies were allowed to dump toxic waste from freighters just miles off the Atlantic coast. The Mediterranean is in the throes of recovering from years of raw sewage and effluent pollution from offshore oil and gas production. Mining accidents and a string of oil spills over the past quarter-century, including the most recent when the Prestige split in two off the Galician coast in 2002, have devastated rivers and marine life. Bilbao, Spain's leading industrial center well into the 1990s, was credited (or discredited) with Western Europe's worst air quality - despite the fact that Spain and the rest of southwestern Europe enjoy a natural advantage over the north in the prevailing winds that act to keep air pollution to a minimum. And leaded gasoline wasn't phased out until the 1990s, meaning that major urban centers like Madrid and Barcelona continue to suffer under a polluted skyline.

In a departure from its historically shortsighted policies, the government established a Ministry of the Environment in an effort to improve conditions. A series of acts introduced in the 1990s have begun to target the major environmental issues and since 1976 membership in environmental organizations has increased dramatically, indicating a growing change among the population. But it's a long, dirty road. Aforestation has introduced non-native species such as the eucalyptus tree, which grows rapidly, choking out native species. Water quantity has decreased as agricultural practices expand, fostering desertification (Spain, in fact, has Europe's only bona-fide desert, located in the Almeria province) while air and noise pollution have steadily increased.

Flora

The India of Europe! proclaimed the botanist Linnaeus. The sheer diversity of habitats in Spain, a country no larger than the state of Texas, is surprising. Distinctive landscapes throughout the country harbor over 8,000 floral species. More than half of these are endemic to the peninsula, the result of the shielding effect the Pyrenees Mountains had when the last ice age receded. The peninsula is part of the geographical zone known as the Western Palearctic, encompassing native European, North African, even arctic vegetation in the highest mountain regions, the resulting mix of which is occasionally spectacular - African palms alongside Mediterranean oaks; European beech trees with Aleppo pines.

The Spanish government has taken measures during the last century to shield its most important natural areas. The ecologically conscious King Alfonso VIII established Spain's first National Park of Covadonga in the Cordillera Cantabrica mountains. Since then, wetlands, forests and highlands crucial to mammals, migratory birds and insects have been protected. The chamois, a goat-like antelope on the verge of extinction at the turn of the 20th century, has rebounded and now roams the mountains south of Ávila in great numbers since King Alfonso VIII set that area aside as a natural park.

Dry Spain: The central and southern regions of Spain foster two types of vegetation in the Meseta plateau/Iberian depression and along the Mediterranean. In the driest areas, namely Extremadura, La Mancha and the Ebro Valley, steppe flora is common, including thorny scrub, plants and woodlands able to retain moisture in the dry, salty environment. The Meseta sprouts holm oaks to the west and cork trees to the east. A more complex botanical environment exists along the Mediterranean coastal zones, where holm oak and cork forests are interspersed with cedars and coniferous trees like the Aleppo pine. These give way to conifers such as Scotts pine and larch in the mountainous regions. The central sierras of the Meseta have beech and oak, the Sierra Nevada oak, chestnut, and the occasional Spanish fir (a conifer of North African origin). An almost treeless landscape of scrub thrives in the highest altitudes, while the eastern Mediterranean deserts exhibit exotic species of plants such as aloe, the Indian prickly pear and dwarf palms.

Wet Spain: The north, from Pais Vasco to Galicia, is a land of forests where oak and beech thrive in the damp, maritime regions. Here the rugged land often produces permanently green fields, deciduous shrubs and trees. Ferns, gorse and heather dominate the rich undergrowth while holm oaks thrive out in the open and in shady foothills. Higher up, there are beech and chestnuts and various spruce species added through reforestation. The uppermost reaches spawn alpine meadows and scrublands.

Coastlines & Wetlands: The Spanish coastline has many habitats, each increasingly threatened by pollution and waste spills, ineffective irrigation practices and resort development. The wetlands, the most valuable wildlife habitat of the Spanish coast and its most fragile, are faced with all of these issues and a decreasing water table is just one of the effects. In Doñana on the southern coast in the Huelva province, the water table is said to be falling as much as one meter (three feet) per year. As these habitats dry up, the plants that have long since adapted to the salty waters are dying out and the birds - millions in the case of Doñana each year - are forced to move on or stay and die. Preserving these wetlands is crucial in preserving Spain's biodiversity. Doñana is a refuge for the endangered lynx and imperial eagle, as well as hundreds of other flyers. The Ebro Delta in Cataluña harbors over 300 species. La Albufera de Valencia has been reduced by rice fields to a quarter of its original size and has become less and less viable as a wintering ground for geese. The salt flats of Santa Pola and Torrejieja in Alicante continue to attract flamingos, but the National Park of Tablas de Daimiel in La Mancha, an inland marshland, has begun to dry up frequently. Each of these areas has come under some measure of protection by the Spanish government; preserving them, however, is going to require a much more vigorous approach.

Forests: Spain has both deciduous and coniferous forests. In the mountains of northern Spain where rainfall is high, the broad-leaf deciduous forests predominate. Beech is the most common tree and this is the habitat of the rare brown bear, though strands of poplar and Pyrenean oak are not uncommon. These forests are home to a variety of birds, including sparrow hawks, buzzards, kestrels, golden orioles, nightingales, tawny owls and turtle doves. Coniferous forests are more widespread, located generally on subalpine mountain slopes. These consist of pine varieties including the Aleppo, umbrella, black and Scotts varieties. Roe, red and fallow deer are common, as are wild boar, squirrels, the capercaillie and a variety of woodpeckers. Silver fir grows in Spain's northeastern mountains.

Scrubland: Spain is full of scrublands, the result of forests that were felled long ago. The type of scrubland is dependent on the climatic conditions. The natural park of Monfragüe in Extremadura exhibits extensive Mediterranean scrubland beneath its olive trees, holm oaks and cork oaks, which includes heather, cistus species, laburnum, rosemary and lavender. These scrublands harbor the endangered lynx, black vulture and Spanish imperial eagle and all manner of smaller animals such as the rabbit, hare and fox. Other scrublands are located in the game reserve of Cijara in southern Extremadura and in the Monte de El Pardo near Madrid, both known refuges of the Spanish imperial eagle.

Plains: Flatlands predominate on the Iberian Peninsula as a result of the vast central plateau, La Meseta. The greater expanse of this plateau is arid and dependent on irrigation of subterranean water supplies, which are quickly being depleted. In the south, the Dehesa, with its fertile pasturelands and evergreen strands, is a unique habitat to Spain and home to threatened species such as the black-winged kite and the Spanish imperial eagle, as well as numerous smaller flyers. Arid, stepped plains characterize the province of Almeria in its Tabernas Desert and much of the Rio Ebro valley. Here, rainfall is under 30 cm (12 inches) per year and the sun is usually high and hot. Erosion is a constant concern, having shaped puckered gullies and dirt spires in a landscape that is threatened with severe run-off when it does rain once in a blue moon. The dry conditions are conducive to the growth of various grasses, populated by sand grouse, quail, stone curlew and great bustards. In the Sierra Alhamilla erosion has created enormous chalk chasms and some of Spain's longest caves.

Wildlife

Spanish animal life, as throughout Europe, has been prone to the devastating changes instituted by man. Many species have disappeared because of over-hunting and loss of habitat, while others cling to survival in precariously small numbers. Spain, with more natural spaces than anywhere else in Western Europe, is often the last bastion for species such as the brown bear and pardel lynx.

Ironically, shifting demographics and infrastructure have proven disastrous for some of Spain's species, while beneficial for others. The Iberian lynx, which once ranged as far as the north coast of the Mediterranean, is now down to an estimated three breeding pairs in the southern mountains of Spain. Likewise, the brown bear, known for its laziness in reproducing, has dwindled to fewer than 100, the result of lost habitats. On the flipside, there has been a steady migration of people from the country to the cities of Spain over the last 30 years. As the countryside has been left devoid of people, vegetation in areas previously devoted to agriculture has returned and such prey species as Iberian wolves, roe deer and wild boar have increased significantly.

Each of the geographical regions in Spain claims a unique roster of wildlife. In Galicia there are mountain goats, hare, field mice, assorted birds and Iberian wolves. The Cantabrian Mountains harbor fallow deer, shrew mice, chamois, eagles, vultures and wild boar. In the Pyrenees are muskrats, ermines, large cats, mountain goats, a few bears and wild boar. Central Spain has badgers, foxes, hedgehogs, deer, rabbits, moles, partridges, quails, storks, and the list goes on. Andalucia has weasels, dormouse and, in the Doñana Reserve, the most important collection of wildlife in all of Europe with flocks of flamingos and raptors channeling between Western Europe and North Africa. The following are descriptions of the most prominent species.

Mammals

Spanish ibex (Capra hircus): This goat-like animal, shown below, was teetering on the brink of extinction at the end of 19th century until King Alfonso XIII banned hunting in the Sierra de Gredos near Ávila. It has since rebounded to over 10,000 in number. Males are grayish-brown with white underbellies, dark tails and two long, slightly curved, ribbed horns. Females have shorter horns. Ibex are great mountain climbers, living at elevations above 2,000 m (6,500 feet).

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes): This nocturnal species is common to the peninsula. It slinks through scrubland and tall vegetation searching for carrion and birds. Red with white underbelly, the fox has a bushy tail with a white tip. The Iberian fox is less common, smaller and darker in color.

Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus): Spain is the last refuge for European wolves. Fully 70% live on the Iberian Peninsula; their range was once unlimited, but is now restricted to the northern mountains and coast. Recent numbers are estimated at around 1,500. The shade of their coat varies with the seasons, but generally the wolves have a long, reddish muzzle, chestnut to black mottled fur and dark markings on the front legs. In the winter their coats are heavier and a darker gray or red. The wolves face an uphill battle as shepherds and farmers continue to hunt them illegally in an effort to prevent livestock kills. The wolves are now being bred in captivity in the hopes of reintroducing them to the wild.

Iberian wolf

Cantabrian brown bear (Ursus arctos): Since the earliest times, the bear has found itself in the direct path of human encroachment and only recently were laws targeted at eradicating the bear repealed. These days, fines are stiff and farmers may be compensated for any livestock losses they incur as a result of the bear. Only 100 bears survive, limited to the Cantabrian and Pyrenean mountain ranges of northern Spain. Preserving their woodland habitats and educating rural laborers is crucial to boosting the brown bear's numbers.

Barbary ape (Macaca sylvanus): The Barbary ape is not, in fact, an ape but a species of macaque, a short-tailed monkey native to Asia. No one knows quite how these monkeys made it to the rock of Gibraltar, but they've become an emblematic feature. There are about 50 in all and they will eat out of your hands (and will bite them). They are wild and should be treated as such, even though they are rather cute. The British government, which claims Gibraltar, has assigned a soldier to feed and tend to the monkeys, which residents complained were getting into garbage cans and generally monkeying around.

Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra): A common sight in the high mountain regions, the chamois is an agile, goat-like animal with a grayish coat, a white face with black eyeliner, small, candy-cane-shaped horns and a short, dark tail. During the summer they climb to feed on alpine vegetation and, with snowfall, descend beneath the treeline. The chamois is often confused with the Spanish ibex, which has much larger horns, is larger and has a lighter coat and no facial markings.

Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon): The snake killer of southern Spain has an evenly colored amber coat, a long body and neck, short, skinny legs, a small, pointed head and a long tail with a furry tuft at the end. The mongoose feeds on eggs and amphibians and is commonly seen around scrublands and marshes, often with a litter of three or four trailing behind. It is sometimes confused with the common otter, which is larger and does not have a tufted tail.

Otter (Lutra lutra): The playful otter is a fixture on the rivers and waterways. With its webbed feet, it is a powerful swimmer capable of staying below the water for extended periods during its fish hunts. While the otter is threatened throughout much of Europe, it enjoys healthy numbers in Spain. It is a light brown with an off-white belly and short tail.

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): This is the most common species of deer. It lives in woodlands and in pastures, where it can usually be seen at dusk or in the early morning light. It is blond in color with a white patch near its short tail.

Pardel or Spanish lynx (Lynx pardina): A rare and precious sight, the Spanish lynx is one of Spain's most endangered species. Some 40 pairs are estimated to remain, the majority in the Parque Nacional de Doñana. The lynx favors woodlands and rarely ventures out during the daytime, preferring to hunt rabbits at dusk. Its coat is a dingy brown spotted with black. It has tufted ears and a short tail with a black tip.

Wild boar (Sus scrofa): Once threatened, the wild boar has successfully rebounded to become a frequent sight in the woods and scrublands of the peninsula. It is a large, fat and ugly creature with a coarse grayish-brown coat (depending on whether or not it has been wallowing in mud lately), a ridged back and short tusks. It grunts as it digs up roots and seeds, often damaging farmland in the process. The wild boar is usually seen in multiples.

Birds

Set between Europe and Africa along yearly migratory routes, Spain's skies are sometimes filled with thousands of different bird species. Many make stopovers at the Parque Nacional de Doñana, the struggling Tablas de Daimiel marshlands in La Mancha and on the eastern coast at L'Albufera and the Ebro Delta. Yet, curiously enough, Spain does not have a national bird.

Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca adalberti): The country's majestic flyer is highly endangered, estimated at only 100 surviving pairs. Most are in the Parque Nacional de Doñana and the Parque Natural de Monfragüe in Extremadura, where they build nests high atop pine trees in lowland forests and scour the fields for rabbits and small mammals. Other eagles seen in Spain include the threatened Bonelli's eagle, a medium-sized bird with a mottled brown and white plumage. Of the 1,000 or so estimated to survive in Europe, roughly 75% are in the mountainous Mediterranean regions of Spain. The booted eagle has a light body with darker wings; it breeds in Portugal and Spain during the summertime, with considerable numbers on the Balearic Island of Mallorca. The golden eagle is the most common eagle found throughout Spain year-round, predominantly in the mountain regions such as the Pyrenees, where it nests on cliff faces or atop tall trees. The short-toed eagle has brown plumage with white underneath; it prefers warm, dry areas of woodland or dehesa.

Black stork (Ciconia nigra): The once-threatened black stork remains far less common than its more gregarious cousin the white stork, but is making a rebound, particularly in the Parque Natural de Monfragüe. It is smaller than the white stork and a solid black, with the exception of its light-colored underbelly. It spends its summer months in Spain, nesting along rocky crags or atop isolated trees in undisturbed forests near streams and marshes. It returns to tropical Africa in October to spend the winter.

White stork (Ciconia ciconia): The white stork is common throughout Spain and, unlike the black stork, not shy of humans. It builds its gigantic nests atop roofs, chimneys, battlements and church bell towers. It's easy to spot soaring with the thermals in search of fish with its large white body and black wing tips.

Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber): In its migration from Africa the flamingo prefers areas of high salinity along Spain's Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts, with high concentrations in the Parque Nacional de Doñana and Las Marismas del Odiel. The flamingo is not always pink, as it requires a healthy supply of crustaceans to give its pale plumage the striking color that will attract mates. It uses its strong, sharp bill to crack shells.

Raven (Corvus corax): The large, shiny black carrion feeder is a common sight throughout the open country.

Eleonora's falcon (Falco eleonorae): Found in the western Mediterranean, Eleonora's falcons feed on smaller birds and breed on rocky cliffs along undisturbed coast lines and sparsely populated islands. Its greatest numbers are in the Aigües Tortes National Park, Islas Baleares, Canary Islands and La Albufera in Valencia.

Bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus): Also called the lammergeier, this highly endangered raptor has an estimated 60 pairs left living above the tree line of the Pyrenees Mountains. Of the four vultures found in Europe, it is the rarest, a fiercely territorial bone-feeder with long black wings and a golden-colored breast (caused by its rubbing against calcareous rocks possessing iron oxides). It takes its name from the long tuft of feathers near its beak.

Black vulture (Aegypius monachus): The largest bird of prey in Europe, shown below, and a rare sight for the average birdwatcher, the black vulture is an increasingly threatened species that nests in trees or on rocky ledges near open lands where it feeds on carrion. Its greatest numbers are located in the Parque Natural de Monfragüe, the Montes de Toledo, Doñana, Sierra de Gredos and Sierra de Guadarrama. As its name suggests, the black vulture is all black with a small white band across its beak.

Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus): This common vulture feeds on leftovers from the black vulture. It is a migratory species found in a variety of habitats, though it prefers cliffs for nesting and uses high thermals for soaring and circling above its meals. It has large, dark and broad wings with splayed tips and a small, lightly colored head characterize this vulture.

Lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus): Spain's most common gull, a frequent sight around trash heaps, marshes, the shoreline and hovering above fishing boats. Fully grown, it is either gray or white with pale legs.

Tawny owl (Strix aluco): A nocturnal that feeds on small birds, the tawny owl is either chestnut brown or gray with white mottling. Its habitat is woodlands and its familiar hoot serves as a territorial warning, as a courtship call and to announce the discovery of food.

Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos): The most frequently observed duck in Spain, it has a vibrant green head, a tawny breast and either chestnut or white plumage. Found in wet areas where it searches out aquatic plants and invertebrates.

Marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris): See picture below. A threatened duck with light brown plumage speckled with dark and light spots and a darker patch around its eye. It is a relative of the pochard, though far less common, and breeds in shallow fresh waters with thick aquatic vegetation.

Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis): The sparkling kingfisher swoops down from treetops to dive after fish in rivers, lakes and along the coasts. It is a fairly common sight in Spain, with a bright bluish-green upper body and an orange chest with a long bill. It nests in holes along dry banks.

Red kite (Milvus milvus): An abundant species that frequents open landscapes and wooded areas in search of carrion and small mammals. It has a rich walnut plumage with light spots on the underside of its wings and a forked tail. Its relative is the larger black kite, which is darker and has a squared tail.

Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus): The largest member of the grouse family, the capercaillie is a rare and beautiful sight. It is a large bird with a metallic teal breast, dark brown wings and a thick tail. The male has a curious mating dance characterized by guttural drumming and the splaying of the tail into a fan-shape. Its habitat is the woodlands of the Cordillera Mountain range.

Capercaillie

Bee eater (Merops apiaster): An accomplished flyer with teal and yellow markings, brown plumage and pointed wings. The bee eater nests in holes along Spanish river banks during the summer and feeds on flying insects.

Great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major): An unmistakable bird, both in sound and appearance. It is a resident of forests, with distinct alternating bands of black and white with a splash of red on the underside of its tail and near the back of its neck. It flies through the air in a wave-like manner and hammers woods with its beak in search of insects.

Hoopoe (Upupa epops): A striking bird often seen in open fields, it has a yellow breast and broad wings of alternating black and white bands. A crown of feathers atop its head is banded in white and tipped in black. It uses its long bill to dig up ground worms.

Azure-winged magpie (Pica pica): Found in central and southern Spain, the colorful magpie is at home in strands of cork oaks and lowland forests. It has a black head with a pale body and lavender wings. Large numbers are concentrated in the Iberian Mountain Range along the eastern coast.

Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus): A common local species with rust-colored wings tipped in black and paler underside with dark mottling. Females have a rust-colored head while males are gray. It is a hoverer that dines on insects and small mammals. Its relative, the lesser kestrel, has gray wing tips that yield to black, particularly in a band across the tail. It is smaller and more threatened.

Reptiles & Amphibians

Pyrenean brook salamander (Euprocuts asper): This long salamander (up to six inches) has a rough skin that is either brown or dark gray with dark spots and an orange colored strip across its back. The brook salamander lives at altitudes up to 3,000 m (9,840 feet) in the Pyrenees Mountains and is most active in brooks and streams during the spring and summer. It is generally nocturnal and, during the winter months, nearly impossible to locate as it burrows well beneath the ground to hibernate.

European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis): The common freshwater European turtle is naturally slow and moss green in color. It enjoys sunning on rocks or logs but slips into the water when approached. It is related to the stripe-necked terrapin, whose bright orange stripes early in life eventually fade to a light yellow.

Moorish gecko (Tarentola mauritancia): In its search for insects, the tiny Moorish gecko, left, is attracted to outdoor lights at night. It uses its sticky footpads to climb walls in rural pueblos and is commonly found scrambling around indoors during the daytime.

Striped tree frog (Hyla arborea): The bright green frog is common to marshy lands. It sleeps on leaves or tall reeds that conceal it and feeds on insects at night.

Striped tree frog

Lataste's snub-nosed viper (Vipera latastei): An endemic species immediately identifiable by its horn-shaped snout, Lataste's prefers low-lying hill areas around the Pyrenees Mountains where it feeds on small mammals. Its venom is not particularly dangerous to humans, but it can kill a rat.

Fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra): One of four varieties of salamander in Spain, this one has a deep black body with bright yellow or orange markings. The skin produces an irritant that can agitate mucous membranes and occasionally kill small prey like earthworms and beetles. The fire salamander requires a moist habitat near water, usually in forested areas, and rarely makes forays during the day.

Montpellier snake (Malpolon monspessulanus): Common to dry, rocky areas and scrub with lots of lizards, which are its main prey. Though venomous, the Montpellier snake is normally not aggressive and has deep-seated fangs that make it difficult to penetrate the skin of larger prey. It is dark blue with a white underbelly and a distinctive ridge above its eye.

Protected Natural Areas (Espacios Protegidos)

Over the course of Spain's environmental movement (which could be said to have begun in 1918 when King Alfonso VIII established the first national