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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Ethnobotany of the Alt Empordà region (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula)


Plants used in human traditional medicine
Montse Parada, Esperança Carrió, Maria Àngels Bonet, Joan Vallès ∗
Laboratori de Botànica, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII, s/n. 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharma-
Received 8 January 2009 ceutical plant uses from a tourist and industrialised region, where some degree of acculturation exists,
Received in revised form 20 April 2009 so that there is urgency in recording such data.
Accepted 25 April 2009
Aim of the study: To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants
Available online 5 May 2009
in a north-eastern Iberian region (Alt Empordà, 1358 km2 , 129,160 inhabitants).
Methodology: We performed 101 semi-structured interviews with 178 informants (mean age 69; 71%
Keywords:
women, 29% men), identified the plant taxa reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with
Medicinal plant ethnobotany
Plant uses
those from other territories.
Quantitative ethnobotany Results: The informants reported data on 518 species. Of these, 335, belonging to 80 botanical families,
Traditional plant knowledge were claimed as medicinal. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98%
of the pharmaceutical uses (3581 out of 3643 use reports). Around 800 medicinal uses, concerning 200
species, have not, or have very rarely been cited as medicinal; of these, 32 uses of 30 species have been
reported by three or more independent informants.
Conclusions: The folk knowledge about medicinal plant use is still alive in the studied region, and a number
of scarcely reported plant uses has been detected, some of them with promising phytotherapeutical
applications.
© 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction often traditionally avoided by planting Arundo donax L. or Cupressus


sempervirens L. in rows).
The Alt Empordà is one of the largest regions of Catalonia, Alt Empordà vegetation landscape is asymmetrically shared
embracing about 1358 km2 (Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya, between two of the big biogeographical regions in Europe: Mediter-
www.idescat.cat). It is mainly a flat area, opened to the Mediter- ranean – widely dominant – and Eurosiberian – just in some high
ranean Sea from the eastern part, and limited by the Pyrenees to areas on the mountain massif. According to the classification of
the north and the Garrotxa mountain range to the west, where the Folch et al. (1984), the following vegetation dominions are found (1)
main two rivers that flow in the Alt Empordà, Muga and Fluvià, start Centreuropean middle mountain, limited to the highest altitudes
(Fig. 1). in the district (up to 1250 m), with beech tree (Fagus sylvatica L.)
The climate of the Alt Empordà region is considered winter- forests. (2) Mediterranean and submediterranean mountains and
mild Mediterranean, with a mean annual temperature of lowlands, at low altitudes and in the big plain, with different Quer-
14.5–16 ◦ C (data from the Catalan Meteorological Service, cus species (Q. ilex L., Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Q. suber L.) and their
http://www.meteo.cat/mediamb xemec/servmet/index.html). associated communities. (3) Littoral vegetation, with typical coastal
Autumn is the rainiest season (mean rainfall 550–750 mm), (rocky or sandy), and salt-marsh communities. (4) Riparian vege-
comparatively to dry summers. One of the most characteris- tation, with Alnus Mill. and Populus L. populations near rivers. (5)
tic meteorological phenomena is a north-west direction wind Segetal, arvensic and ruderal areas, which include gardens, farm
called “tramuntana”, due to the canalization of the Pyrenees, and fields, plots, paths, road edges and, in general, the proximities of
responsible for some natural effects, such as some wind-adapted human habitations, where plant–people interaction has been most
vegetation forms and the desiccation of the crop cultures (which is studied.
The population of Alt Empordà is around 129,160 inhabitants
(census 2007, www.idescat.cat), distributed in 68 municipalities.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 934024490; fax: +34 934035879. The capital city of the region is Figueres (with 41,115 inhabitants).
E-mail address: joanvalles@ub.edu (J. Vallès). In terms of economy, this area has evolved through three different

0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.04.050
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610 M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618

Fig. 1. Location of the studied region in Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Catalan linguistic area.

periods: an initial agriculture and cattle growth, a later industrial ethnobotany works (see all contributions in Vallès et al., 2007). All
forestry use (especially cork), and finally a tourism boom concen- the data has been collected from repeated conversations with local
trated on the seaside Costa Brava, which lasts until the present people who work and live close to plants, to ensure the reliabil-
days. ity of the information. This model is what anthropologists know as
Since its first definition (Harshberger, 1896), ethnobotanical semi-structured, focalized interview (Pujadas et al., 2004).
research was conducted all over the World. In the Iberian Peninsula, As a whole, 101 interviews with 178 informants were carried out,
holding a high biological and cultural diversity, many ethnobotani- some of them group interviews but normally one-to-one meetings.
cal surveys have been carried out in recent years (González-Tejero, The mean age of the interviewees is 69 (minimum 23, maximum
1989; Mulet, 1990, 1991; Obón and Rivera, 1991; Villar et al., 1992; 93); 71% are women, and the remaining 29% are men. More than
Ferrández and Sanz, 1993; Martínez, 1993; Palacín, 1994; Blanco, half of the women are housewives, and interviewed men work as
1996a,b; Casana et al., 1996; Martínez et al., 1996; Verde et al., 1998; farmers. The data gathering period lasted from 1996 to 2007, since
Blanco et al., 1999, 2000; Blanco and Cuadrado, 2000; Fajardo et this paper compiles the work collected from early studies of the
al., 2000; Fernández-Ocaña, 2000; Camejo-Rodrigues, 2001, 2002; territory involving more than 10 years of research (Parada, 1997,
Novais, 2002; Verde, 2002; Pellicer, 2000–2004; Tardío et al., 2002, 2007). The popular common names of the plants in Catalan, as
2006; Camejo-Rodrigues et al., 2003; Moll, 2003, 2005; Ortuño, well as their pronunciation, were also recorded. Concerning plant
2003; Pardo de Santayana, 2003, 2004, 2008; Novais et al., 2004; uses, most information has been collected about medicinal and food
San Miguel, 2004; Pardo de Santayana et al., 2005; Carvalho, 2005; properties, but we did not neglect other aspects when reported.
Rivera et al., 2006, 2007; Akerreta et al., 2007a, b; Benítez, 2007; Plant materials of all the taxa reported were collected in collabo-
González-Tejero et al., 2007). A remarkable amount of work has ration with the informants and identified using the Flora dels Països
been conducted in the Catalan linguistic area, which the present Catalans (Bolòs and Vigo, 1984–2001) and the Flora Manual dels Paï-
paper is dealing with (Rigat et al., 2006, and references therein), sos Catalans (Bolòs et al., 2005), with the help of specialists. The
where several investigations are currently ongoing: in Catalonia herbarium vouchers are deposited in the herbarium BCN (Centre de
(study of homegardens in the Pyrenees), Balearic Islands (ethnob- Documentació de Biodiversitat Vegetal, Universitat de Barcelona).
otany of Majorca island; see Carrió, 2007, for preliminary results)
and Valencia. The territory object of the present investigation was
2.2. Data analyses
partly prospected earlier by our group (Parada, 1997; Bonet et al.,
1999; Parada et al., 2002). Now the research has been completed
The data collected during the fieldwork have been entered and
and a reasonably comprehensive catalogue of the ethnoflora of the
analyzed in a database generated with Microsoft Access v. 2007
territory has been built (Parada, 2007).
(Microsoft Corporation) software, which is continuously updated.
Any ethnobotanical research has two main general objectives:
The results have been structured in a plant catalogue (Parada, 2007)
contribute to the plant biodiversity knowledge (taking into account
that considers the following items: plants mentioned (including
that the biological diversity also concerns the human awareness
scientific and vernacular names); botanical families which these
about uses, applications and natural resources conservation) and
plants belong to; herbarium voucher number; informants who have
take this knowledge for further social and scientific interventions.
cited these plants; medicinal, edible and non edible uses sepa-
In this frame, the main aims of the present paper are (i) to contribute
rated by the part of the plant employed, and also other utilizations
to the diffusion of the results of the Alt Empordà study to the scien-
that can have ethnobotanical interest. Pharmaceutical methods of
tific community, keeping in mind to open a door for researches on
preparing the remedies are also part of the catalogue, as well as if
other disciplines and other works (ii) to do a quantitative assess-
the plant referred can be part of a mixture.
ment of the data obtained, comparing with similar studies in other
Comparisons between the plants claimed as useful by our
territories, and (iii) to look for vascular plants which have not been
informants and those previously reported have been carried out
previously cited or with scarce previous report on medicinal uses,
consulting more than 150 works on ethnobotany, economic botany,
that might be evaluated in further pharmacological studies.
medicinal plants and phytotherapy, recorded in Parada (2007). It
has been considered as very scarcely reported those not found in
2. Methodology these papers, or appearing only in a maximum of three of them.
This method has allowed us to determine the degree of originality
2.1. Field studies and novelty of the uses claimed by the informants.
With the help of a computerized database querying, quantitative
Basic methodology from anthropological and botanical research ethnobotany calculations have been performed, allowing us dis-
has been adapted to our field of study to carry out this work (Centre cussing the results obtained and their novelty value comparing with
d’Information et de Réflexion sur l’Environment Végétal, 1979; other studies. The following indices have been calculated: number
Jain, 1987; Martin, 1995; Schultes and Reis, 1995; Alexiades, 1996; of medicinal plants/km2 , per inhabitant and per informant; ethnob-
Bernal and Corbalán, 2008). Moreover, we have considered previ- otanicity index (EI; Portères, 1970), which is the quotient between
ous Iberian ethnobotanical studies (see references cited in Section the number of plants used and the total number of plants known as
1) and followed methodological contributions from recent Catalan the flora of a territory, also expressed as a percentage, closely related
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M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618 611

Table 1
Top vascular plants in Alt Empordà traditional phytotherapy: from those most reported, the ones that present, at the same time, the highest number of uses and the most
diversity of uses. Only the uses of every plant alone (not in mixtures) and those mentioned by at least three independent informants are reported. The uses are expressed
first as claimed by the informants and the interpretation in medical terms is provided between brackets. The figures between the brackets indicate the number of reports of
every use. E: external use. I: internal use. See also Table 2 for rarely reported uses of Allium sativum, Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum, Ruta chalepensis and Sambucus nigra.

Scientific name (family, voucher specimen) Main local Catalan names Common popular uses

Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae, BCN 29832) All For earache (antiotalgic, I, 1; E, 32), to kill the worms
(antihelmintic, I, 7), for general pain
(anti-inflammatory/antialgic, I, 5; E, 1), for warts
(antiverrucose, E, 4), for bronchitis (antibronchitic, E, 3)

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. piperitum Fonoll, Matafaluga To eliminate gases (carminative, I, 23), for bellyache
(Ucria) Cout. (Apiaceae, BCN 29867) (intestinal anti-inflammatory, I, 11), laxative (laxative, I, 5),
to urinate (diuretic, I, 4), for bad breath refreshing
(antihalitosic, I, 3)

Lippia triphylla (L’Hér.) Kuntze (Verbenaceae, Marialluïsa For bellyache (intestinal anti-inflammatory, I, 30), to digest
BCN 29886) (digestive, I, 20), for stomach ache (gastric
anti-inflammatory, I, 13)

Matricaria recutita L. (Asteraceae, BCN 29890) Camamilla, Camamilla de jardí To clean sick eyes (ocular antiseptic, E, 33), to digest
(digestive, I, 28), for bellyache (intestinal
anti-inflammatory, I, 23), for stomach ache (gastric
anti-inflammatory, I, 14), for sore eyes (for conjunctivitis, E,
8), for sickness (antinauseous, I, 4), to stop vomiting
(antiemetic, I, 4), for wound disinfection (antiseptic, E, 3)

Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae, BCN 29995) Menta, Menta del consol Digestive (digestive, I, 9), for stomach ache (gastric
anti-inflammatory, I, 6), to stabilize the belly (intestinal
anti-inflammatory, I, 6), to refresh and help the stomach
(stomachic, I, 5)

Olea europaea L. var. europaea (Oleaceae, BCN Olivera, Oli d’oliva (elaborated product), Olives (fruits) To low blood pressure (antihypertensive, I, 39), for burns
29898) (antipyrotic, E, 6), for wounds (antiseptic, E, 4),
laxative/stimulant (laxative, I, 3; E, 1), for earache
(antiotalgic, E, 3)

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae, BCN Romaní To calm pain and deflate knocks
29937) (anti-inflammatory/antialgic, I, 1; E, 13), for colds
(anticatarrhal, I, 6; E, 2), for knocks
(anti-inflammatory/antialgic/antiechymotic, E, 6), for
bones and joints pain (antiarthritic, E, 5), to wash wounds
(antiseptic, E, 5), for joints and knees pain
(antiosteoarthritic, E, 4), it helps to digest (digestive, I, 4),
to enhance circulation (vasotonic, I, 4), for laziness
(antidepressant, I, 3), for muscular pain
(anti-inflammatory/muscular antialgic, E, 3)

Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae, BCN 29940) Ruda Abortive (abortive, I, 12), for nerves (tranquilizing, I, 9), it
helps the period come down (emmenagogue, I, 4)

Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae, BCN 29943) Sabuc, Sabuquer, Saüc To clean the eyes (ocular antiseptic, E, 19), for headache
(anticephalalgic, I, 13; E, 5), for colds (anticatarrhal, I, 14),
for earache (antiotalgic, E, 10), for bellyache (intestinal
anti-inflammatory, I, 8), to clean the eyes (for
conjunctivitis, E, 8), for sore throat (pharyngeal
anti-inflammatory, I, 3), for the lungs (antipneumonic, I, 3),
refreshing (stomachic, I, 3), for cough (antitussive, I, 3), to
open the respiratory tract (nasal anticongestive, I, 3), to
prevent wound infection (vulnerary, E, 3)

Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae, BCN 29961) Farigola For wound disinfection/wound cleaning (antiseptic, E, 50),
for bellyache (intestinal anti-inflammatory, I, 22), to
disinfect mouth sores (buccal antiseptic, E, 19), for eye bath
(ocular antiseptic, E, 12), for internal disinfection (internal
antiseptic, I, 11), for any wound disinfection (vulnerary, E,
10), for sore throat (pharyngeal anti-inflammatory, I, 1; E,
8), for sore eyes (for conjunctivitis, E, 9), for stomach ache
(gastric anti-inflammatory, I, 9), laxative (laxative, I, 8),
digestive (digestive, I, 7), for toothache (antiodontalgic, I, 1;
E, 4), to clean the mother after delivering (post-labour
antiseptic, E, 3), for inflamed gums (gingival
anti-inflammatory, E, 3), for colds (anticatarrhal, I, 3), for
urine infection (urinary antiseptic, I, 2; E, 1), to urinate
(diuretic, I, 3)

to ethnophytonymy index (Bonet et al., 1999), obtained dividing the allochthonous plants used in a territory and the total number of
number of plants from a territory that have some common plant used taxa; and informant consensus factor (FIC ; Trotter and Logan,
names to the number of species from the flora of the area multiplied 1986), which is the ratio between the number of use reports minus
per 100, as it is a percentage; index of phytoethnoallochthoneity the number of used taxa and the number of use reports minus one,
(Mesa-Jiménez, 1996), which is the ratio between the number of and shows how reliable the uses claimed by the informants are
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612 M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618

(more reliable when closer to 1). In addition, we did a rough estima- aerial parts (16.28%). These results do not differ much from previous
tion of the utilization index (U/C; proposed by Muntané, 1991, and studies in Catalan areas (Mulet, 1990, 1991; Muntané, 1991, 2003;
modified by Parada, 1997 and Bonet et al., 1999), obtained by divid- Bonet et al., 1992, 1999; Raja et al., 1997; Agelet, 1999; Bonet, 2001;
ing the number of plants used by the number of plants reported, Rigat, 2005). Generally, these are the plant parts that present less
expressed as a percentage; in fact, the number of plants currently collection and conservation difficulties, and the ones that make easy
used is hard to estimate exactly (although we ask our interviewees plant identification.
an approximate idea about this), so that we have compared this per-
centage only with those obtained in territories prospected by our 3.2. Methods of drug preparation and administration
team (using the same methodology) or with other studies of which
we know that the same kind of approximation has been done. Given The percentage of internal uses (65.33%) is significantly higher
these circumstances, this index provides only but still an idea of the than that of external uses (34.67%), and tisanes (more decoc-
degree of decline of popular plant use. tions −45.53% than infusions −30.91%) are the most used forms
for preparation, both for internal and external administration. For
internal use, tisanes are far followed by direct administration or use
3. Results and discussion
of plants without preparation, and smoke inhalation, vapours and
perfumes. Syrups and essences are remarkable because its process
A catalogue of Alt Empordà ethnoflora has been built, which
of elaboration requires a complex, often long and more accurate
refers 518 taxa, of which 335 are used for health remedies (mostly
preparation. In the studied area we can highlight the essence of
human medicine) including therapeutic, prophylactic and diagnos-
Artemisia absinthium L. (‘essència de donzell’ in Catalan), which has
tic matters. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses,
no previous references, similarly prepared to the Sambucus nigra
which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (3581 out of 3643
essence, only referred in a few other Catalan regions (Grup Català
use reports). The complete catalogue of the ethnoflora of the terri-
d’Etnobotànica, 1986; Bonet, 1991, 2001; Puigsasllosas et al., 1993;
tory surveyed is given in Parada (2007, electronically published in
Selga, 1998; Vallès et al., 2004; Rigat, 2005; Rigat et al., 2006) but
the TDX database, http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/), and Parada and
not in other territories. The wormwood essence is based on a flower
Vallès (in press).
distillation and, as the elder’s essence and a restricted amount or
preparations, is a good example of folk technology applied to medic-
3.1. Botanical analyses: families, species and parts of the plants inal plants; flower heads are placed in between a piece of cloth held
on the top of a soup pot and, above it, a plate with gently heated
The 335 medicinal plants from which information has been ember. The hot temperature helps the flower to lose liquid, which
obtained belong to 80 botanical families, best represented by the is collected in the pot (the piece of cloth works as a filter). Worm-
Asteraceae (12.27%), Lamiaceae (9.58%), Rosaceae (5.39%), Fabaceae wood essence has been referred as an antihelmintic remedy taken
(3.59%) and Apiaceae (3.29%). Comparing these values to those of in spoonfuls, especially for children.
other studies with similar Mediterranean climate and vegetation The most important forms of preparation for external use are
(those quoted in Table 3 plus Pieroni et al., 2002, 2004; Novais the ones prepared with aqueous base (mostly decoctions) used for
et al., 2004; Scherrer et al., 2005; Guarrera et al., 2005, 2008; baths, buccal washes and gargles, and the ones in direct applica-
Akerreta et al., 2007b; González-Tejero et al., 2007; Maxia et al., tion of the plant or previously manipulated in plasters or poultices.
2007) we might conclude that Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Rosaceae Preparations in alcoholic base (macerations in alcohols) or in olive
are always among the most important families referred in these ter- oil (macerations and decoctions) are also encountered.
ritories. The parallelism found between families with more species It is difficult to establish a quantitative formulation of reme-
reported and families with more representatives in the flora of the dies, because dosages are not always known (or only approximately
area agrees with the fact that the closer to civilization a plant grows, given, almost never in units such as grams). Sometimes, informants
the more it is used for local people (Johns et al., 1990; Bonet et al., refer to odd numbers in terms of number of parts of the plant used,
1999). days of preparation (seven, nine, fifteen days left outside, although
Table 1 shows a summary of the top ten vascular plants in forty days is also a quite used period of time, with a high sani-
Alt Empordà traditional phytotherapy: they are, from the list of tary signification, for the quarantines) and administration period
the most reported species, the ones that also present a very high (normally structured in nine days, in the so-called ‘novenes’). It is
number of uses and a wide diversity range of medical uses. It is thought that this nine-day period is the optimum range of days to
worth mentioning these plants, despite they are quite common and enhance most of medicine efficacy, and its subsequent breaks avoid
very often reported in ethnopharmacological papers, because they drug addiction and reduces possible side effects (Peris and Stübing,
provide a good idea of the basic and more rooted ethnobotanical 1993). Moreover, number nine has (as seven) magic-religious con-
knowledge of the area studied. We also present the most origi- notations (Gavilanes, 1995; Agelet, 1999) that can contribute to the
nal medicinal plant uses in the region prospected, i.e. those not or treatment accomplishment.
scarcely previously reported (Table 2), in agreement with Heinrich
et al. (2009) that “it may also be of particular relevance to highlight 3.3. Plant activity
the use of rarer species”. It ought to be emphasized that some of
the most commonly used plants have also not or rarely recorded A total of 184 types of medicinal uses have been compiled
uses. In all the tables we note the use as it has been referred by the following Cook’s (1995) classification, in which gastrointestinal
informants in order to preserve the ethnopharmacological focus diseases are the most frequent, similarly to other territories
of the work, and also a standard term to name the use as inter- (González-Tejero, 1989; Mulet, 1990; Muntané, 1991; Bonet, 1991;
preted by ourselves. Following the reliability criteria of Le Grand Arnold-Apostolides, 1991; Martínez, 1993; Parada, 1997; Selga,
and Wondergem (1987) and Johns et al. (1990), we only list in 1998; Agelet, 1999; Bonet, 2001; González-Tejero et al., 2007). Anti-
Tables 1 and 2 the uses mentioned by at least three independent inflammatory and antiseptic activities are also widely claimed in
informants, as they constitute the most relevant ethnopharmaco- Alt Empordà traditional pharmacopeia, followed by urinary tract
logical data. disorders.
The plant organs most commonly used for remedy preparation We have observed that the folk recognition and treatment of dis-
are floral structures (31.9%), followed by leaves (20.68%) and whole eases lies in the frequency of manifestation and ease to determine
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Table 2
New or scarcely reported medicinal plants and uses in Alt Empordà that have been mentioned by three or more independent informants. The uses are expressed first as claimed by the informants and the interpretation in medical
terms is provided between brackets.

Scientific name (family, voucher specimen) Main local Catalan names Part used Not or very scarcely documented Preparation Administration Reports
popular use

Actinidia chinensis Planch. (Actinidaceae, BCN Kiwi Fruit Laxative (laxative) Direct ingestion Internal 3
50774)
Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae, BCN 29832) Alls Bulb For bronchitis (antibronchitic) Syrup Internal 3
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (Liliaceae, BCN 27242) Àloe vera, Bàlsam Leaves To cure wounds (cicatrizing) Direct application External 3
Alyssum maritimum (L.) Lam. (Brassicaceae, Herba fetgera, Herba pedrera Flowered aerial part For stones in the kidney (renal Decoction, infusion Internal 4
BCN 29622) lithotripter)
Arum italicum Mill. (Araceae, BCN 32358) Xèrries Fruit For piles (antihaemorrhoidal) Ointment External 5
Celtis australis L. (Ulmaceae, BCN 29845) Lledoner Leaves To low blood pressure Decoction, infusion Internal 3
(antihypertensive)
Cichorium endivia L. (Asteraceae, BCN 46854) Escarola Leaves When throat hoarse (for hoarseness) Decoction Internal 3
Cistus albidus L. (Cistaceae, BCN 36672) Estepa blanca Leaves, flowered aerial part For cough (antitussive) Decoction, infusion Internal 3

M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618


Clematis flammula L. (Ranunculaceae, BCN Vidiella Leaves To burn the warts (antiverrucose) Direct application External 3
29856)
Cupressus sempervirens L. (Cupressaceae, BCN Xiprer Fruit For piles (antihaemorrhoidal) Decoction External 3
35770)
Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae, BCN 46849) Codony, Codonyer Fruit For bellyache (intestinal Syrup Internal 5
anti-inflammatory)
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. piperitum Fonoll Fruit, aerial part For bad breath (antihalitosic) Infusion, direct ingestion External 3
(Ucria) Cout. (Apiaceae, BCN 29867)
Hyoscyamus albus L. (Solanaceae, BCN 31277) Herba queixalera Grains For toothache (antiodontalgic) Direct application and fumigation External 5
Juniperus communis L. subsp. communis Ginebre, Ginebró Fruit For bad breath (antihalitosic) Direct ingestion Internal 3
(Cupressaceae, BCN 29878)
Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas Timó Flower heads To relieve blue spots due to knocks Decoction External 3
(Lamiaceae, BCN 29883) (antiecchymotic)
Marrubium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae, BCN 29726) Herba del mal roig, Madrastra Aerial part For stones in the kidney or in the bile Decoction, infusion Internal 3
bladder (lithotripter)
Olea europaea L. var. sylvestris (Mill.) Brot. Olivera borda Leaves To low pressure (antihypertensive) Decoction, infusion Internal 20
(Oleaceae, BCN 46838)
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae, BCN 29742) Orenga Flower heads Good for everything (salutiferous) Decoction, infusion Internal 4
Paliurus spina-christi Mill. (Rhamnaceae, BCN Espinavessa Fruit To low cholesterol Infusion Internal 11
29902) (hypocholesterolemic)
To low uric acid (hypouricemic) Decoction Internal 3
Parietaria officinalis L. subsp. judaica (L.) Cama-roja, Blet de paret Aerial part For stones in the kidney (renal Decoction, infusion Internal 3
Béguinot (Urticaceae, BCN 29745) lithotripter)
Prunella vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae, BCN 29759) Herba del traïdor Flower heads To disinfect wounds (antiseptic) Decoction, infusion External 6
Prunus avium (L.) L. (Rosaceae, BCN 29827) Cirerer, Cireres Fruit For bellyache (intestinal Maceration in alcohol Internal 4
anti-inflammatory)
Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae, BCN 29940) Ruda Flowered aerial part For dry cough attacks (antitussive) Medicinal wine, aerosol Internal 4
Salvia officinalis L. subsp. lavandulifolia (Vahl) Sàlvia Leaves For menopause problems (for Decoction, infusion Internal 3
Gams (Lamiaceae, BCN 29780) menopause disorders)
Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae, BCN 29943) Sabuc, Sabuquer, Saüc Inflorescence To open the nose (nasal decongestive) Aerosol Internal 3
Scirpus holoschoenus L. (Cyperaceae, BCN Jonc, Jonc de ribera Stem For gingival problems in newborns Infusion Internal 12
29789) (gingival anti-inflammatory)
Scrophularia auriculata L. (Scrophulariaceae, Setge Leaves For troubles linked to wounds Direct application External 3
BCN 29790) (antiseptic)
Sideritis sventenii (G. Kunkel) Mend.-Heuer Orella de gat, Orella de gos Leaves For troubles linked to wounds Direct application External 3
(Lamiaceae, BCN 29957) (antiseptic)
Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae, BCN 29963) Blat Fruit For a kind of eczema called “brià” Poultice External 3
(antifungal)
Vitex agnus-castus L. Barda, Ximbla Flowers For warts (antiverrucose) Direct application External 4
(Verbenaceae, BCN 29820) Flowers, leaves To low sugar (hypoglycemiant) Decoction, infusion Internal 3
613
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their symptoms and to evaluate the results of the therapy. This fact Table 3 also includes the ethnobotanicity index (Portères, 1970),
even influences remedies reminding: informants better remember calculated for medicinal plants, which is 19.14 for the region studied
plants being used to treat recurring or chronical diseases (such as in this work; almost a fifth of the species of the territory have medic-
common indigestions and diabetes or high blood pressure). inal use. We consider this value high enough as compared with the
other territories, taking into account that the present prospection
3.4. Common local plant names has been performed in the last years, in which a large decrease in
ethnobotanical knowledge has occurred in industrialised countries.
An amount of 1015 popular names (1347 phonetic variants) have Closely related to the ethnobotanicity index, the ethnophytonymy
been collected to designate the 518 catalogued taxa. Frequently, index (Bonet et al., 1999) has been obtained. This value (31.1 in
phenomena of polysemy (the same popular name for different this study case) helps to specify the current vitality of plant names
species) and synonymy (different popular names for one species) knowledge, which is somehow proportional to the global plant
appeared, even together. Referring to the methods of plant names actual learning; if people cannot even remember names of plants,
formation, several categories have been established. Some exam- these plants are no longer significant for them, so that plant uses
ples are the ones related to inflorescence shape (e.g. ‘camamilla de will be easier to forget. Another indicator of medical knowledge loss
botó’, button camomile), to chemical characteristics (e.g. ‘lletoses’, about plants is the utilization index (U/C; Muntané, 1991; Parada,
milky) or religious believes (e.g. ‘alls de bruixa’, witch’s garlic). It 1997; Bonet et al., 1999). Even if this index cannot be exactly calcu-
is also quite frequent that a plant bears a popular name related to lated in the interviews (because the informants only provide us with
its medicinal use. This mechanism of name formation, explained by an estimation of the persistence of uses), it gives almost a rough
the theory of signature (Font, 1961) is very productive in most lan- idea of the real current plant utilization. This index in Alt Empordà
guages. Some examples from the area studied are ‘herba melsera’ is 44.5%, close to the 50% as in many studies referred (Table 3). Con-
(spleen herb), ‘flor de cop’ (knock flower), ‘herba de les berrugues’ sidering that only around 45% of the plants reported have persistent
(warts herb), ‘menta del mal de panxa’ (bellyache mint). use in Alt Empordà, we tend to believe that there is a continuous
loss of cultural plant knowledge in the area. If we compare recent
results (Parada, 2007) with those obtained 10 years ago (Parada,
3.5. Plant mixtures 1997) in the same district taking a smaller part of the Alt Empordà
region the decrease is dramatic (from around 90% to around 45%).
Informants reported information on 375 plant mixtures, 183 for Although the data are not directly comparable, because the first
external use and 192 for internal administration, in which 147 dif- study comprised only a very reduced area where the informants
ferent plant species are used. Not surprisingly, the four species more were carefully selected as the ones with potentially more ethnob-
reported by the interviewees in mixtures are the ones that work as otanical knowledge, it is out of doubt that some decrease has to be
excipients, apart from having their own medicinal properties. These attributed to the pass of the years, since we verified that some of
are Olea europaea L. var. europaea (olive oil), Vitis vinifera L. (alco- our informants in the first study have ceased to utilize some plants
hol, vinegar, wine), Triticum aestivum L. (bread, toasts, flour, bran) that they used to employ 10 years ago. Carrying out a follow-up of
and Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris var. crassa (Alef.) Helm (sugar, for the area studied may allow us to quantify and realize about how
syrups and generally for internal use as sweetener). Pharmacologi- important the cultural loss on ethnobotanical matters is.
cal action from plant mixtures should be attributed to the synergy The reliability of the uses claimed by the informants constitutes
among all plants more than to individual medicinal properties, so a relevant issue according to Le Grand and Wondergem (1987) and
that the recognition of the contribution of each plant to the final Johns et al. (1990); a use is reliable when reported by at least three
effect becomes somehow difficult. independent informants. In Alt Empordà, 235 uses of 103 medici-
nal plant species meet this condition suggesting a rather high level
3.6. Quantitative ethnobotany of reliability for many plants. Moreover, the data reported by only
one or two informants must be also taken into account. They are
Quantitative data collection from ethnobotanical studies is turn- probably less significant in statistical terms, but they may reflect
ing to be essential for further information evaluation and for the acculturation (Ember and Ember, 1997) occurred in the last
carrying out more solid comparisons between other ethnobotany half century in Western, industrialised countries. In these areas,
works that use the same methodology (Hoffman and Gallaher, the vertical, generational transmission of folk knowledge about
2007; Tardío and Pardo de Santayana, 2008). Table 3 shows some plants has been weakened or fully broken, so that uses claimed by
quantitative data on medicinal plants in 27 regions of the Mediter- a very small number of informants can be the last remnants of the
ranean territories, including the one concerned by the present ancient ethnobotanical knowledge. Of course, such data may also be
study. This comparison of index values reveals the ethnobotanical the product of not enough verified insinuations, but anyway they
richness and reliability in every area, but it has to be considered cannot be just forgotten, although they should be more carefully
that the differences in extension and number of inhabitants in checked in case they were used as a basis for drug development
every region might gently vary these values. As assessed by other processes. This notwithstanding, the agreement among the infor-
authors (Begossi, 1996; Agelet, 1999), the number of medicinal mants in plant use is certainly a good indicator of reliability. Going
plants reported by informants does not increase proportionally to more in depth in this matter, this agreement may be assessed as the
the total of people interviewed; new use citations become more informant consensus factor (FIC ; Trotter and Logan, 1986), which is
infrequent as the number of informants rises. Similarly, the mean calculated in order to assess reliability and consistency of medicinal
number of uses reported tends to stabilize as the number of infor- plant use, to select the most promising taxa for further chemical or
mants increases (Ali-Stayeh et al., 2000). In fact, the number of pharmacological research in view of new drug development. The
informants for this study (178) is the third largest in the areas general FIC value is 0.91 for the studied territory, which means that
compiled, and the number of medicinal plants reported (335) is informants show high knowledge and coherence about medicinal
among the highest, similar to the 322 medicinal plants cited in plants uses. The maximum value of this factor is 1 and our result
Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas (Fernández-Ocaña, 2000) based on is among the highest as compared with precedent works in the
183 informants. The value of medicinal plants per informant (1.88 Mediterranean region as well as in other areas climatologically and
in Alt Empordà), medicinal plants/km2 (0.25) and per inhabitant culturally very different (Bonet and Vallès, 2003; Rigat et al., 2006,
(2.82 × 10−3 ) has been calculated as well. and references therein).
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M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618 615

Table 3
Comparison of ethnobotanical data among several Mediterranean areas.

Region Extension (km2 ) Population Floraac MPad MP/km2 MP/inhabitant NIae MP/Iaf EIag U/Cah

Catalan language territories


Alt Empordà (inland region) a 178 41,300 950 149 0.84 3.61 × 10−3 46 3.24 15.68 93
Alt Empordà (whole region) b 1358 118,718 1750 335 0.25 2.82 × 10−3 178 1.88 19.14 44.5
Capcirc 177.1 1752 550 94 0.53 5.4 × 10−3 28 3.48 17.09 –
Castellód 6679 385,823 2128 365 0.06 9.46 × 10−4 150 2.34 17.2 –
Cerdanyae 1139.9 26,250 1600 234 0.21 8.9 × 10−3 155 1.51 14.63 30.4
Conflentf 882.6 16,554 1500 170 0.19 10.27 × 10−3 60 2.88 11.33 22.9
Guilleries g 594 27,298 1100 158 0.27 5.8 × 10−3 27 5.85 20 87
High River Ter Valleyh 294 4526 1600 220 0.75 4.87 × 10−2 60 3.67 16.2 68.6
Montseny i 826 79,373 1500 351 0.43 4.43 × 10−3 172 2.05 25 43.4
Pallars j 2530 18,880 1500 437 0.17 2.32 × 10−2 264 1.66 29.1 49.2
River Tenes Valleyk 260 17,969 – 150 0.58 8.35 × 10−3 28 5.40 – 70.8
Segarral 646 17,040 – 92 0.14 5.39 × 10−3 29 3.17 – 52.6

Other Iberian territories


Campiña, Lam 1300 113,968 832 186 0.14 1.63 × 10−3 – – 31.25 –
Campoo–Los Vallesn 1012.12 23,027 1500 166 0.16 7.2 × 10−3 107 1.55 23 –
Caurelo 260 2400 800 223 0.86 9.29 × 10−2 45 4.96 27.9 –
Cazorla, Segura y Las Villasp 2143 72,423 1933 322 0.15 4.5 × 10−3 183 1.76 29.53 88.83
Córdobaq 13,718 724,000 1641 145 0.01 2 × 10−4 106 1.37 8.8 –
Gata Caper 800 20,000 1000 253 0.32 1.26 × 10−2 153 1.65 25.3 –
Granadas 12,531 761,734 – 241 0.02 3.16 × 10−4 – – – –
Huescat 15,671 222,000 2500 553 0.04 2.48 × 10−3 – – 22 50
Los Villares–Valdepeñasu 271 9508 906 158 0.58 1.66 × 10−2 100 1.58 51.1 –
Montesinho Natural Parkv 734 7427 1271 166 0.23 2.24 × 10−2 100 1.66 24.7 –
Navarra (western Pyrenees)w 2200 7800 1822 92 0.04 11.79 × 10−3 88 1.04 5.05 –
Piloñax 282 8608 – 114 0.40 13.24 × 10−3 157 0.73 – –
São Mamede mountainsy 400 35,770 – 150 0.38 4.19 × 10−3 45 3.33 – –

Other Mediterranean territories


Cyprusz 9251 639,000 1900 379 0.04 5.93 × 10−4 – – – 19.9
Israel-Palestinaaa 20,700 4,486,600 – 150 0.01 3.34 × 10−5 100 1.5 – –
Tunisiaab 154,520 7,900,000 2000 553 0.01 7 × 10−5 130 4.25 27.7 27.7

(a) Parada (1997), Bonet et al. (1999), Parada et al. (2002)—preliminary study; (b) Parada (2007)—present study; (c) Muntané (2005); (d) Mulet (1990, 1991); (e and f) Muntané
(2005); (g) Selga (1998), Bonet et al. (1999), Parada et al. (2002); (h) Rigat (2005), Rigat et al. (2006, 2007); (i) Bonet (2001); (j) Agelet (1999); Agelet and Vallès (2001, 2003a,
2003b); (k) Bonet (1991, 1993), Bonet et al. (1992); (l) Raja (1995), Raja et al. (1997); (m) Casado (2003); (n) Pardo de Santayana (2003); (o) Blanco (1996); (p) Fernández-Ocaña
(2000); (q) Casana (1993), Galán (1993); (r) Martínez (1993), Martínez et al. (1996, 1997); (s) González-Tejero (1989); (t) Villar et al. (1992); (u) Ortuño (2003); (v) Carvalho
(2005); (w) Akerreta et al. (2007); (x) San Miguel (2004); (y) Camejo-Rodrigues (2001), Camejo-Rodrigues et al. (2003); (z) Arnold-Apostolides (1991); (aa) Friedman et
al. (1986), Palevitch et al. (1986); (ab) Le Floc’h (1983), Boukef (1986); (ac) Approximated number of vascular plants species from the flora of the territory; (ad) Number of
medicinal plants reported; (ae) Number of informants; (af) number of medicinal plants reported per informant; (ag) ethnobotanicity index (Portères, 1970: Number of used
species × 100/Number of species from the flora; calculated here for medicinal plants only); (ah) utilization index (Muntané, 1991; Parada, 1997; Bonet et al., 1999: Number
of used species × 100/Number of reported species).

The informants showed a capacity of adaptation to new plants mum just in three of them, comprising Iberian, Mediterranean and
and uses, so that the index of phytoethnoalloctoneity (Mesa- many other works, see the analysis of the complete ethnobotani-
Jiménez, 1996), which indicates the degree of use of allochthonous cal catalogue in Parada, 2007). Specifically, Alt Empordà informants
plants, was calculated. Its value in the area studied is 4.0, mean- reported 32 scarcely cited plant uses for 30 species which have been
ing that 4% of the plants reported in this survey are neither mentioned as medicinal for at least three independent informants.
spontaneous nor cultivated in the territory considered. This value These plants are compiled in Table 2, which includes, apart from
is intermediate between those calculated for two other Iberian plant nomenclature, plant activities as claimed by the informants
areas, Montseny (6.6; Bonet, 2001) and Cazorla mountains (0.25; followed by the equivalent medical statement in brackets. More-
Fernández-Ocaña, 2000), partly indicating the different degrees over, the way of preparation and administration is also referred.
of anthropisation of each territory. As an example of quite popu- Some rare uses are reported from taxa close to others that are
lar non-autochthonous plants, the informants reported Aloe vera well-known for the same medicinal utilization. This is the case
(L.) Burm. f. as a cicatrizing, a use which is not very recorded of Olea europaea var. sylvestris (Mill.) Brot., whose leaves are used
in the literature; it is sure that the use of this plant is not the as antihypertensive, a use largely reported for the cultivated var.
product of the local tradition, but has been influenced by the europaea (var. sylvestris has a much more restricted area than var.
commercial introduction of the plant. Another interesting case is europaea); we believe that it is worth mentioning such reports,
that of Actinidia chinensis Planch. The fruit of this species (the which indicate that local people know, appreciate and manage
kiwi) was introduced some years ago as edible. It has had a their wild resources. Uses that may be variants (or slightly different
good acceptance by people, who has even experienced and sub- interpretations) of other better known ones, such as nasal decon-
sequently reported a medicinal property, laxative. This is a good gestive for Eucalyptus globulus Labill. or gastric anti-inflammatory
indication of the closeness of people who, when they know a for Lippia triphylla (L’Hér.) Kuntze, are not reported here. Anyway,
plant, employ it beyond the utilization for which it was intro- these results indicate the originality and richness of Alt Empordà
duced. traditional pharmacopoeia, contrary to the thought that nowa-
days in Western Europe pharmaceutical ethnobotany studies are
3.7. New or scarcely reported medicinal plants already non-suitable and cannot be an appropriate approach to
set the basis for further research in new drugs. Next, specific
Around 800 uses corresponding to 200 species have not been information on some representative and original plants or uses is
referenced in any of the major literature works consulted (or maxi- given.
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616 M. Parada et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 (2009) 609–618

3.7.1. Alyssum maritimum (L.) Lam. reached, as a direct consequence of this prospection, an agreement
The aerial flowered part, flowered stems and inflorescences of with a food and drink house to furnish regularly Matricaria recu-
this plant are employed as renal lithotripter in infusion and decoc- tita L., Mentha × piperita L., Mentha pulegium L., Origanum vulgare
tion. Its Catalan common name ‘herba pedrera’ (herb for stones) and L. and Tilia cordata Mill. materials. He established a small-scale
its rocky and sandy coastal habitat preferences reveal the popular cultivation of these aromatic/medicinal plants, and this activity
use, similarly related to its diuretic activity referred by Font (1961). supposed a supplementary income for him. On the other hand, the
It is also claimed to be a hepatic lithotripter, and to have other bene- data from the present ethnobotanical prospection (Parada, 2007)
fits associated to the hepatic function (hepatoprotective, antiicteric, were used, together with ethnobotanical data from other stud-
the last use in veterinary). No phytochemical studies have been per- ies, by a laboratory specialised in medicinal plants, as the basic
formed on this species (Duke, 2008; http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke, scientific information to put in the marked phytomedicinal prod-
accessed November 18, 2008). ucts with Humulus lupulus L., Jasonia saxatilis (Lam.) Guss., Melissa
officinalis L., Pinus sylvestris L., Santolina chamaecyparissus L. and
3.7.2. Cupressus sempervirens L. Thymus vulgaris L. Finally, we started some efforts that have been
Even though this species is not native and spontaneous in the positively received, to revert to people the knowledge collected
area considered, it is very common and well-known, and it con- in the present research. This work has two focuses: (i) publish-
figures the agricultural landscape, as it is planted to protect crop ing a relevant part of our results in form of a book addressed to
cultures from the strong northern wind (“tramuntana”). Its stro- a large public, in the frame of a collaboration with a local cul-
bile is employed (claimed by four informants) as antihaemorrhoidal tural entity (Institut d’Estudis Empordanesos; Parada and Vallès,
in external use (bath) and antivaricose in internal use (tisane by in press), including a plan of public lectures; and (ii) a campaign
decoction); only the first use was previously reported (Font, 1961). of results diffusion to children through schools, working with
a local teaching service (Centre de Recursos Pedagògics de l’Alt
3.7.3. Paliurus spina-christi Mill. Empordà). All these activities show that etnobotanical research
The fruit is used to treat, in infusion or decoction, cholesterol and may be useful, even in industrialised countries, for improving
uric acid high levels. Although these metabolic disorders are rela- health care and economic situations, as well as for educational
tively new, these plant uses are popularized and they were probably purposes.
treated by locals before their scientific description. An antihyperc-
holesterolaemic phytopharmaceutical remedy based on this plant
4. Concluding remarks
exists in the market, but the folk use for this purpose has only been
detected in the studied area (now and in our preliminary prospect,
The present study reveals that still nowadays, even close to one
Parada, 1997; Bonet et al., 1999) and in another region of the Catalan
of the hotspots of tourism in the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian
Pyrenees (Agelet, 1999; Agelet and Vallès, 2001). Some phytochem-
Peninsula (the so-called Costa Brava), a successful ethnobotanical
ical studies have been performed on this plant, one of them related
survey can take place. Results are actually not disappointing: an
to hepatic diseases (Kamertelidze et al., 1999). As for the use as
ethnomedical catalogue composed by 335 taxa has resulted from
antiuricemic, it has not been found in the literature. All the same, it
178 selected interviewees. Furthermore, a remarkable list of new or
is reported that this species has been traditionally used as diuretic
uncommon medicinal uses – both from well-known and scarcely
(Vanaclocha and Cañigueral, 2003) due to the presence of flavonoid
reported plants – has been compiled, some of them with promis-
glycosides (Brantner and Males, 1999).
ing phytotherapeutical applications. So it is a good reason to keep
carrying on ethnobotanical researches in industrialised areas as
3.7.4. Prunella vulgaris L.
a start point for any bioprospection project, which will lead to
This species has antiseptic properties when administered for
the development of new drugs. Perhaps, the idea of rescuing tra-
external use, flower heads being prepared as an infusion or decoc-
ditional knowledge (extensively applied to medical folk wisdom)
tion. It is also employed as vulnerary and cicatrizing. Although
represents a useful tool to fight against currently alarming accultur-
other species of the genus Prunella, such as Prunella grandiflora (L.)
ation. It may also constitute necessary information to be compiled
Scholler, have been previously more reported, this species has been
as an example of wise environmental management and humankind
surprisingly extensively cited by the informants in our territory: 26
understanding.
informants, some of which even cultivate this plant in their gardens
to have it easily available. The variety of its general folk uses goes
from digestive disorders to blood problems. It is also compiled in Acknowledgements
some works as a panacea (Font, 1961).
Twelve taxa have been reported (in some cases for a high number We are very grateful to all the informants of the Alt Empordà
of informants) as haemostatic, in general, or antiepistactic: Alnus for their willingness to share with us their precious knowledge
glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., Althaea officinalis L., Artemisia verlotiorum on plant use and management, as well as for their kindness and
Lamotte, Arundo donax L., Borago officinalis L., Cistus monspeliensis L., hospitality. We show our gratitude also to T. Garnatje, N. Llurba,
Equisetum arvense L., Medicago sativa L., Piper nigrum L., Quercus ilex J. Muntané and M. Rigat for their help in analyses and/or their
L. subsp. ilex, Rosa canina L., Urtica dioica L. and Urtica urens L. Con- comments on the content of the present work. We also thank C.
sidering the practically total lack of commercial such products in the Benedí, J. Molero, R. Morales, S. Pyke, À.M. Romo and J. Vicens
pharmacies (one antiepistactic and no haemostatic for cutaneous for help in determining the plant species, R. Guàrdia, J. Parada
wounds after the retirement of an aluminium-based product), it and again J. Vicens for their technical support. This study was
would be worth studying these plants and their potential in this partially supported by projects subsidized by the Institut Ramon
field. Muntaner (AP07/07) and the Spanish Ministry for Science (SEJ2007-
60873/SOCI).
3.8. Applied aspects of this ethnobotanical prospection
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