1.

THE INFINITIVE
A. FORM
PRESENT INFINITIVE TO WORK,
TO DO
PRESENTCONTINUOUS INFINITIVE TO BE WORKING,
TO BE DOING
PERFECT INFINITIVE TO HAVE WORKED,
TO HAVE DONE
PERFECT CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE TO HAVE BEEN WORKING,
TO HAVE BEEN DOING
PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE TO BE DONE
PERFECT INFINITIVE PASSIVE TO HAVE BEEN DONE

The full infinitive consits of two words to + verb, as shown above. That's why we also
call it to-infinitive. But sometimes this particle is absent, then the infinitive is said to be
a bare infinitive.
Infinitives can be made negative by adding "not."
I decided not to go.
The most important thing is not to give up.

B. USES OF THE INFINITIVE (TO-INFINITIVE)

1. The infinitive may be the subject of a sentence:
To save money now seems impossible
To lean out of the window is dangerous.
But it is more usual to place the pronoun it first, and move the infinitive or infinitve
phrase to the end of the sentence:
It seems impossible to save money now
It is dangerous to lean out of the window

2. The infinitive may be the complement of a verb:

His plan is to keep the affair secret

3. The infinitive may be the object or part of the object of a verb:

He wants to pay (a)
He wants me to pay (b)
I found out where to buy food cheaply (c)
(a) Here is a list of verbs followed by infinitives as objects:
afford begin*** deserve hate*** mean**
agree care expect* hesitate need*/**
appear choose* fail hope neglect***
arrange consent forget** intend offer
ask* continue*** get (be allowed to) learn prefer***
attempt dare go on** like*** prepare*
(can't) bear*** decide happen love*** pretend
beg demand manage promise*
propose*** remember** tend wait would like*
refuse start*** threaten* want*
regret** swear try** wish*

*verb followed by an infinitive OR an optional noun + an infinitive:

She asked to leave She asked him to leave (b)

**verb followed by a gerund OR an infinitive with a difference in meaning (see 3.5)

***verb followed by a gerund OR an infinitive with little difference in meaning (see 3.4)

(b) Many verbs are followed by object + infinitive. Some of these verbs are:
advise* forbid mean request
allow* force need** require*
ask get oblige teach
(can't) bear hate order tell
beg help permit* tempt
cause instruct persuade trouble
command intend prefer urge*
compel invite prepare want
dare leave promise warn
encourage* like recommend* wish
expect love remind

*verb followed by a gerund OR a noun + an infinitive

I advised seeing a doctor. I advised them to see a doctor.
**verb followed by a gerund OR an infinitive with a difference in meaning (see 3,5)

c) In indirect speech, we can use an infinitive after the question words WHO, WHAT,
WHERE, etc (but not usually WHY). This structure expresses ideas such as obligation and
possibility:
I wonder who to invite
Tell us what to do

4. The infinitive can be used after certain adjectives:

She was hesitant to tell the coach of her plan.
Tom is certain to win
It is boring to do the smae thing every day

Here is a list of adjectives that you will often find in such constructions.
ahead determined lucky
amazed disappointed pleased
anxious eager proud
ashamed eligible ready
bound fortunate reluctant
careful glad sad
certain happy shocked
content hesitant sorry
delighted liable surprised
likely upset

5. The infinitive can express purpose:

He went to France to learn French
He sent John to the shop to buy bread
We can also use in order to (more formal) or so as to
He got up early in order to have time to pack
I moved to a new flat so as to be near my work
A for-structure can be used to talk about a purpose that involves action by somebody
else.
I left the door unlocked for Harriet to get in

6. The infinitive can be used after certain nouns:

His ability to get on with people is his chief asset
Her desire to play basketball for UConn became an obsession

Here there is a list of the most useful nouns that can be followed directly by an infinitive:
advice opportunity refusal
appeal order reminder
command permission request
decision plan requirement
desire possibility suggestion
fact preparation tendency
instruction proposal wish
motivation recommendation

7. The infinitive can be used with too/enough:

a. too + adjective/adverb + infinitive
The box is too heavy to carry.
We arrived too late to see the beginning of the movie.
b. adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive
She is tall enough to reach the book on the shelf.
Linda runs quickly enough to win the race.
c. enough + noun(s) + infinitive
He has enough money to buy his own car.
Diane needs enough time to finish writing her book.

C. USES OF THE BARE INFINITIVE (INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)

1. The bare infinitive is used after modal auxiliary verbs (will, shal, should, can,
could, may, might and must:
I must go now
Can you help me?

2. We also use the bare infinitive after had better, would rather, would sooner and
sometimes after need and dare:
You'd better see what she wants Tom would rather/sooner read than talk
She needn't do the washing up I daren't go out at night

3. Certain verbs are followed by object + infinitive without to:

let make see* hear* feel* watch* notice*
She lets her children stay up very late
I made them give me the money back
I didn't see you come in

Help can also be used in this way:

Could you help me (to) unload the car?

In passive versions of these structures (with make, see, hear and know) the infinitive
with to is used:
He was made to pay back the money

*These verbs can also be followed by a gerund:

I saw him changing the wheel (the action may be either complete or incomplete.
It could mean that I watched the whole action or that I saw only party of it)
I saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document, photograph it
and put it back (the action is complete. It means that I saw the whole action)
4. We use the bare infinitive after why (not):
Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices

2. THE GERUND
A. FORM
A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing.": RUNNING, SPEAKING, etc.
GERUND FORMS

SIMPLE The teacher enjoys teaching.

SIMPLE PASSIVE The students enjoy being taught.

PERFECT The retired teacher recalled having taught.

PERFECT PASSIVE The older students recalled having been taught that
already.

Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not."

He enjoys not working.

Gerunds can often be modified with possessive forms such as his, her, its, your, their, our,
John's, Mary's, the machine's, and so on. This makes it clearer who or what is performing
the action.
I enjoyed their singing. They were singing.
She understood his saying no to the offer. He said no.

B. USE
1. The gerund can be used as subject of a sentence:
Dancing bored him

2. The gerund can be used as complement of a verb:

Her hobby is painting

3. The gerund can be used as object of a verb:

I enjoy reading
She suggested going to a movie.

Here is a list of verbs followed by gerunds as objects.

admit* excuse mention*
appreciate* fancy (=imagine)* mind
avoid feel like miss
burst out (crying/laughing) finish postpone
consider forgive prevent
delay forgive propose*
deny* give up resent
detest (can't) help (can't) resist
dislike imagine* risk
enjoy involve (can't) stand
escape keep (on) suggest*
understand*

Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause

She admitted breaking the window / She admitted that she had broken the
window.

4. The gerund can be used after prepositions:

Sandy is scared of flying
 He is thinking about studying abroad
After swimming I felt cold

5. Certain expressions are followed by the gerund.

He had fun fishing
They had difficulty finding a parking place
She spent her time practicing the piano

have (some) problems have a problem have no difficulty

have a difficult time have an easy time have no problem
have a good time have difficulty spend one's time
have a hard time have fun waste one's time

3. COMPARING THE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND

1. Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject of a sentence. However,
gerunds usually sound more like normal, spoken English, whereas infinitives sound more
abstract.
a. Learning is important. normal subject
b. To learn is important. less common

It is not impossible for an infinitive to appear at the beginning of a sentence as the subject
(as in b),to place the pronoun it first, and move the infinitive or infinitve phrase to the
end of the sentence:
c. It is important to learn. More usual

2. Gerunds and infintives can both function as the complement of a sentence:

The most important thing is learning. normal complement
The most important thing is to learn. abstract complement - less common

3. Begin and start can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive without any change of
meaning:
I began working/ to work
But after progressive forms, infinitives are preferred:
I'm beginning to learn karate

4. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with little difference in

meaning.
can't
He can't bear being alone. He can't bear to be alone.
bear

can't Nancy can't stand working the late Nancy can't stand to work the late
stand shift. shift.

The government ceased providing The government ceased to provide

cease
free health care. free health care.

continue She continued talking. She continued to talk.

hate He hates cleaning dishes. He hates to clean dishes.

like Samantha likes reading. Samantha likes to read.

love We love scuba diving. We love to scuba dive.

neglect He neglected doing his daily chores. He neglected to do his daily chores.
 prefer He prefers eating at 7 PM. He prefers to eat at 7 PM.

propose Drew proposed paying for the trip. Drew proposed to pay for the trip.

Remark:
Like, love, hate and prefer: There's little difference of meaning.
Like + to-infinitive is used to talk about choices and habits. Comapare:
I like climbing/ to climb mountains (= I enjoy climbing)
When I pour tea I like to put the milk in first (= I choose to; it's my habit)

After would like, would prefer, would hate and would love, we use the to-infinitive:
I'd like to tell you something

5. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, but with a difference in

meaning.

a. REMEMBER AND FORGET:

remember / forget + gerund looks back at the past – at things that one did.
I still remember buying my first bycicle
I'll never forget meeting the Queen

remember / forget + to-infinitive looks foward in time – at things that one still has or
still had to do at the moment of remembering or forgetting
You must remember to fetch Mr Lewis from the station tomorrow
I forgot to buy the soap

b. REGRET:
regret + gerund looks back at the past – at something that one is sorry that one did.
I regretted being late to the interview.

regret + to-infinitive is used mostly in announcements of bad news

We regret to inform you that your position at the company is being eliminated.

c. GO ON:
go on + gerund means “continue”:
She went on talking about her illness until we all went to sleep

go on + to-infinitive refers to a change of activity:

She stopped talking about that and went on to describe her other problems

d. STOP:
stop + gerund means to end an action, to finisk doing it:
There's too much noise. Can you all stop talking?

stop + to-infinitive means to stop so that you can do it:

He stopped to rest for a few minutes.

e. MEAN
mean + gerund expresses the idea of one thing resulting in another (“involve”)
If you want to pass the exam, it will mean studying hard

mean + to-infinitive is the same as to intend to do it:

I don't think she means to get married for the moment

f. TRY
try + gerund means to do something which might solve a problem – make an
experiment:
 I tried sending her flowers, writing her letters, giving her presents, but she still
wouldn't speak to me

try + to-infinitive means to attempt something, to do your best – make an effort

I tried to change the wheel, but my hands were too cold

g. NEED
need + gerund takes on a passive meaning.
The house needs cleaning (the house needs to be cleaned)

need + to-infinitive means necessity or obligation:

He needs to call his boss.

USED TO - TO BE USED TO - TO GET USED TO

A. Used to do
We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.
I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.
There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.
She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.
I didn't use to like him but now I do.
'Used to do' is different from 'to be used to doing' and 'to get used to doing'

B. To be used to doing
We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.
I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.
Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.

C. To get used to doing

We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming
normal for us.
I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.
She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.
I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the
city.